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            "111128": {
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                "title": "Read-only memory",
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                        "*": "{{Images OK}}{{Approved}}{{Copyedited}}\n{{Memory types}} \n\n'''Read-only memory''', usually known by its acronym '''ROM''', is a class of [[computer storage|storage]] media used in [[computer]]s and other [[electronics|electronic]] devices. In its strictest sense, ROM refers to [[semiconductor]]-fabricated memory that contains data permanently stored in it, with no allowance for future modification. This is the the oldest type of [[solid state (electronics)|solid state]] ROM and is known as ''[[mask ROM]]''.\n\nMore modern types of ROM\u2014such as [[PROM]] ([[Programmable Read-Only Memory]]), [[EPROM]] (Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory), and [[flash EEPROM]] (Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory)\u2014may be reprogrammed, with or without erasure of earlier data. They are still described as \"read-only memory\" because the reprogramming process is generally infrequent, comparatively slow, and often does not permit [[random access]] writing to individual memory locations. Despite the simplicity of mask ROM, [[economies of scale]] and [[field-programmability]] often make reprogrammable technologies more flexible and inexpensive, so that mask ROM is rarely used in new products.\n{{toc}}\nROM media are used mainly to distribute [[firmware]]\u2014that is, [[software]] closely tied to specific [[computer hardware|hardware]] and unlikely to require frequent updates.\n\n== History ==\n\nThe simplest type of [[solid state (electronics)|solid state]] ROM is as old as semiconductor technology itself. [[combinational logic|Combinational]] [[logic gate]]s can be joined manually to map ''n''-bit '''address''' input onto arbitrary values of ''m''-bit '''data''' output (a [[look-up table]]). With the invention of the [[integrated circuit]] came [[mask ROM]]. Mask ROM consists of a grid of [[word (computing)|word]] lines (the address input) and bit lines (the data output), selectively joined together with transistor switches, and can represent an arbitrary look-up table with a regular physical layout and predictable [[propagation delay]].\n\nIn mask ROM, the data is physically encoded in the circuit, so it can only be programmed during fabrication. This leads to a number of serious disadvantages:\n# It is only economical to buy mask ROM in large quantities, since users must contract with a [[foundry (electronics)|foundry]] to produce a custom design.\n# The turnaround time between completing the design for a mask ROM and receiving the finished product is long, for the same reason.\n# Mask ROM is impractical for [[R&D]] work since designers frequently need to modify the contents of memory as they refine a design.\n# If a product is shipped with faulty mask ROM, the only way to fix it is to [[product recall|recall]] the product and physically replace the ROM.\n\nSubsequent developments have addressed these shortcomings. PROM, invented in 1956, allowed users to program its contents exactly once by physically altering its structure with the application of high-voltage pulses. This addresses problems 1 and 2 above, since a company can simply order a large batch of fresh PROM chips and program them with the desired contents at its designers' convenience. The 1971 invention of [[EPROM]] essentially solved problem 3, since EPROM (unlike PROM) can be repeatedly reset to its unprogrammed state by exposure to strong ultraviolet light. EEPROM, invented in 1983, went a long way to solving problem 4, since an EEPROM can be programmed [[in-place programmable|in-place]] if the containing device provides a means to receive the program contents from an external source (e.g. a personal computer via a [[serial cable]]). [[Flash memory]], invented at [[Toshiba]] in the mid-1980s, and commercialized in the early 1990s, is a form of EEPROM that makes very efficient use of chip area and can be erased and reprogrammed thousands of times without damage. \n\nAll of these technologies improved the flexibility of ROM, but at a significant cost-per-chip, so that in large quantities mask ROM would remain an economical choice for many years. (Decreasing cost of reprogrammable devices had almost eliminated the market for mask ROM by the year 2000.)  Furthermore, despite the fact that newer technologies were increasingly less \"read-only,\" most were envisioned only as replacements for the traditional use of mask ROM.\n\nThe most recent development is [[NAND flash]], also invented by Toshiba. Its designers explicitly broke from past practice, stating that \"the aim of NAND Flash is to replace [[hard disk]]s,\"<ref>Inoue, A., and D. Wong. April 2003. NAND Flash Applications Design Guide, page 6.</ref> rather than the traditional use of ROM as a form of non-volatile [[primary storage]]. As of 2007, NAND has partially achieved this goal by offering throughput comparable to hard disks, higher tolerance of physical shock, extreme miniaturization (in the form of [[USB flash drive]]s and tiny [[microSD]] [[memory card]]s, for example), and much lower power consumption.\n\n==Types of ROMs==\n[[Image:Eprom.jpg|thumb|right|300px|The first [[EPROM]], an [[Intel]] 1702, with the [[die (integrated circuit)|die]] and [[wire bond]]s clearly visible through the erase window.]]\n\n===Semiconductor based===\n\nClassic '''mask-programmed ROM''' chips are integrated circuits that physically encode the data to be stored, and thus it is impossible to change their contents after fabrication. Other types of [[non-volatile]] solid-state memory permit some degree of modification:\n*'''[[Programmable read-only memory]]''' (PROM), or '''one-time programmable ROM''' (OTP), can be written to or '''programmed''' via a special device called a '''PROM programmer'''. Typically, this device uses high voltages to permanently destroy or create internal links ([[Fuse (electrical)|fuses]] or [[antifuse]]s) within the chip. Consequently, a PROM can only be programmed once.\n*'''[[Erasable programmable read-only memory]]''' (EPROM) can be erased by exposure to strong [[ultraviolet]] light (typically for 10 minutes or longer), then rewritten with a process that again requires application of higher than usual voltage. Repeated exposure to UV light will eventually wear out an EPROM, but the '''[[#Endurance_and_data_retention|endurance]]''' of most EPROM chips exceeds 1000 cycles of erasing and reprogramming. EPROM chip packages can often be identified by the prominent [[quartz]] \"window\" which allows UV light to enter. After programming, the window is typically covered with a label to prevent accidental erasure. Some EPROM chips are factory-erased before they are packaged, and include no window; these are effectively PROM.\n*'''[[Electrically erasable programmable read-only memory]]''' (EEPROM) is based on a similar semiconductor structure to EPROM, but allows its entire contents (or selected '''banks''') to be electrically erased, then rewritten electrically, so that they need not be removed from the computer (or camera, MP3 player, etc.). Writing or '''flashing''' an EEPROM is much slower (milliseconds per bit) than reading from a ROM or writing to a RAM (nanoseconds in both cases).\n\n**'''[[Electrically alterable read-only memory]]''' (EAROM) is a type of EEPROM that can be modified one [[bit]] at a time. Writing is a very slow process and again requires higher voltage (usually around 12 [[Volt|V]]) than is used for read access. EAROMs are intended for applications that require infrequent and only partial rewriting. EAROM may be used as [[non-volatile]] storage for critical system setup information; in many applications, EAROM has been supplanted by [[CMOS]] [[RAM]] supplied by [[mains power]] and backed-up with a [[lithium battery]].\n**'''[[Flash memory]]''' (or simply '''flash''') is a modern type of EEPROM invented  in 1984. Flash memory can be erased and rewritten faster than ordinary EEPROM, and newer designs feature very high endurance (exceeding 1,000,000 cycles). Modern [[NAND flash]] makes efficient use of silicon chip area, resulting in individual ICs with a capacity as high as 16&nbsp;[[GB]] (as of 2007); this feature, along with its endurance and physical durability, has allowed NAND flash to replace [[magnetic storage|magnetic]] in some applications (such as [[USB]] [[flash drive]]s). Flash memory is sometimes called '''flash ROM''' or '''flash EEPROM''' when used as a replacement for older ROM types, but not in applications that take advantage of its ability to be modified quickly and frequently.\n\nBy applying [[write protection]], some types of reprogrammable ROMs may temporarily become read-only memory.\n\n===Other technologies===\nThere are other types of non-volatile memory that are not based on solid-state IC technology, including:\n* [[Optical storage]] media, such [[CD-ROM]] which is read-only (analogous to masked ROM). [[CD-R]] is [[Write Once Read Many]] (analogous to PROM), while [[CD-RW]] supports erase-rewrite cycles (analogous to EEPROM); both are designed for [[backwards-compatibility]] with CD-ROM.\n\n===Historical examples===\n[[Image:IBM 360 20 TROS.jpg|thumb|300px|Transformer matrix ROM (TROS), from the IBM System 360/20.]]\n\n* [[Diode]] matrix ROM, used in small amounts in many computers in the 1960s as well as electronic desk [[calculator]]s and [[keyboard encoder]]s for [[computer terminal|terminal]]s. This ROM was programmed by installing discrete semiconductor diodes at selected locations between a matrix of ''word line traces'' and ''bit line traces'' on a [[printed circuit board]].\n* [[Resistor]], [[capacitor]], or [[transformer]] matrix ROM, used in many computers until the 1970s. Like diode matrix ROM, it was programmed by placing components at selected locations between a matrix of '''word lines''' and '''bit lines'''. [[ENIAC]]'s Function Tables were resistor matrix ROM, programmed by manually setting rotary switches. Various models of the [[IBM]] [[System/360]] and complex peripherial devices stored their [[microcode]] in either capacitor (called '''BCROS''' for '''''B'''alanced '''C'''apacitor '''R'''ead '''O'''nly '''S'''torage'' on the 360/50 & 360/65 or '''CCROS''' for '''''C'''ard '''C'''apacitor '''R'''ead '''O'''nly '''S'''torage'' on the 360/30) or transformer (called '''TROS''' for '''''T'''ransformer '''R'''ead '''O'''nly '''S'''torage'' on the 360/20, 360/40 and others) matrix ROM.\n* [[Core rope memory|Core rope]], a form of transformer matrix ROM technology used where size and/or weight were critical. This was used in [[NASA]]/[[MIT]]'s [[Apollo Guidance Computer|Apollo Spacecraft Computers]], [[Digital Equipment Corporation|DEC]]'s [[PDP-8]] computers, and other places. This type of ROM was programmed by hand by weaving \"word line wires\" inside or outside of [[ferrite (magnet)|ferrite]] transformer cores.\n* The perforated metal character mask (\"[[stencil]]\") in [[Charactron]] [[cathode ray tube]]s, which was used as ROM to shape a wide [[electron beam]] to form a selected character shape on the screen either for display or a scanned electron beam to form a selected character shape as an overlay on a [[video]] signal.\n* Various mechanical devices used in early computing equipment. A machined metal plate served as ROM in the [[dot matrix printer]]s on the [[IBM 026]] and [[IBM 029]] [[key punch]]es.\n\n==Speed of ROMs==\n===Reading speed===\nAlthough the relative speed of RAM vs. ROM has varied over time, {{As of|2007|lc=on}} large RAM chips can be read faster than most ROMs. For this reason (and to make for uniform access), ROM content is sometimes copied to RAM or \"[[Shadow RAM|shadowed]]\" before its first use, and subsequently read from RAM.\n\n===Writing speed===\nFor those types of ROM that can be electrically modified, writing speed is always much slower than reading speed, and it may require unusually high voltage, the movement of jumper plugs to apply write-enable signals, and special lock/unlock command codes. Modern NAND Flash achieves the highest write speeds of any rewritable ROM technology, with speeds as high as 15&nbsp;[[MiB]]/[[second|s]] (or 70&nbsp;[[nanosecond|ns]]/bit), by allowing (indeed requiring) large blocks of memory cells to be written simultaneously.\n\n==Endurance and data retention==\nBecause they are written by forcing electrons through a layer of [[electrical insulation]] onto a floating [[transistor]] gate, rewritable ROMs can withstand only a limited number of write and erase cycles before the insulation is permanently damaged. In the earliest EAROMs, this might occur after as few as 1,000 write cycles, while in modern Flash EEPROM the '''endurance''' may exceed 1,000,000, but it is by no means infinite. This limited endurance, as well as the higher cost per bit, means that flash-based storage is unlikely to completely supplant magnetic [[disk drive]]s in the near future.\n\nThe time span over which a ROM remains accurately readable is not limited by write cycling. The '''data retention''' of EPROM, EAROM, EEPROM, and Flash ''may'' be limited by charge leaking from the [[floating gate]]s of the memory cell transistors. Leakage is exacerbated at high temperatures or in high-[[Ionizing radiation|radiation]] environments. Masked ROM and fuse/antifuse PROM do not suffer from this effect, as their data retention depends on physical rather than electrical permanence of the integrated circuit (although ''fuse re-growth'' was once a problem in some systems).\n\n==ROM images==\n{{main|ROM image}}\n\nThe contents of ROM chips in video [[game console]] [[Cartridge (electronics)#Software|cartridge]]s can be extracted with special [[software]] or hardware devices. The resultant memory dump files are known as '''ROM images''', and can be used to produce duplicate cartridges, or in [[console emulator]]s. The term originated when most console games were distributed on cartridges containing ROM chips, but achieved such widespread usage that it is still applied to images of newer games distributed on [[CD-ROM]]s or other optical media.\n\nROM images of commercial games usually contain copyrighted software. The unauthorized copying and distribution of copyrighted software is usually a violation of [[copyright]] laws (in some [[jurisdiction]]s duplication of ROM cartridges for [[backup]] purposes may be considered [[fair use]]). Nevertheless, there is a thriving community engaged in the illegal distribution and trading of such software. In such circles, the term \"ROM images\" is sometimes shortened simply to \"ROMs\" or sometimes changed to \"romz\" to highlight the connection with \"[[warez]].\"\n\n== Applications ==\n=== Use of ROM for program storage ===\n\nEvery [[stored-program computer]] requires some form of [[non-volatile]] [[computer storage|storage]] to store the initial program that runs when the computer is powered on or otherwise begins execution (a process known as [[bootstrapping (computing)|bootstrapping]], often abbreviated to \"[[booting]]\" or \"booting up\"). Likewise, every non-trivial computer requires some form of mutable memory to record changes in its [[state (computer science)|state]] as it executes.\n\nForms of read-only memory were employed as non-volatile storage for programs in most early stored-program computers, such as [[ENIAC]] [[ENIAC#Programmability|after 1948]] (until then it was not a stored-program computer as every program had to be manually wired into the machine, which could take days to weeks). Read-only memory was simpler to implement since it required only a mechanism to read stored values, and not to change them in-place, and thus could be implemented with very crude electromechanical devices (see [[#Historical_examples|historical examples]] above). With the advent of [[integrated circuit]]s in the 1960s, both ROM and its mutable counterpart [[static RAM]] were implemented as arrays of [[transistor]]s in silicon chips; however, a ROM memory cell could be implemented using fewer transistors than an SRAM memory cell, since the latter requires a [[latch (electronics)|latch]] (comprising 5-20 transistors) to retain its contents, while a ROM cell might consist of the absence (logical 0) or presence (logical 1) of a single transistor connecting a bit line to a word line.<ref>Millman, Jacob, and Arvin Grabel. 1988. ''Microelectronics'', 2nd ed. Chapters on \"Combinatorial Digital Circuits\" and \"Sequential Digital Circuits.\" New York: McGraw-Hill. ISBN 007100596X.</ref> Consequently, ROM could be implemented at a lower cost-per-[[bit]] than RAM for many years.\n\nMost [[home computer]]s of the 1980s stored a [[BASIC (programming language)|BASIC]] interpreter or [[operating system]] in ROM as other forms of non-volatile storage such as [[magnetic disk]] drives were too expensive. For example, the [[Commodore 64]] included 64&nbsp;[[KiB]] of RAM and 20&nbsp;KiB of ROM contained a BASIC interpreter and the \"[[KERNAL]]\" (sic) of its operating system. Later home or office computers such as the [[IBM]] [[PC XT]] often included magnetic disk drives, and larger amounts of RAM, allowing them to load their operating systems from disk into RAM, with only a minimal hardware initialization core and [[bootloader]] remaining in ROM (known as the [[BIOS]] in [[IBM-compatible]] computers). This arrangement allowed for a more complex and easily upgradeable operating system.\n\nIn modern PCs, \"ROM\" (or Flash) is used to store the basic bootstrapping [[firmware]] for the main processor, as well as the various firmware needed to internally control self contained devices such as [[graphic cards]], [[hard disks]], [[DVD drive]]s, and [[TFT screen]]s, in the system. Today, many of these \"read-only\" memories \u2013 especially the BIOS \u2013 are often replaced with Flash memory (see below), to permit in-place reprogramming should the need for a firmware upgrade arise. However, simple and mature sub-systems (such as the keyboard or some communication controllers in the ICs on the main board, for example) may employ mask ROM or [[Programmable read-only memory|OTP]] (one time programmable). \n\nROM and [[#Types_of_ROM|successor technologies]] such as Flash are prevalent in [[embedded system]]s. This governs everything from [[industrial robots]] to [[appliances]] and [[consumer electronics]] ([[MP3 player]]s, [[set-top box]]es, etc) all of which are designed for specific functions, but nonetheless based on general-purpose [[microprocessor]]s in most cases. With software usually tightly coupled to hardware, program changes are rarely needed in such devices (which typically lack devices such as hard disks for reasons of cost, size, and/or power consumption). As of 2008, most products use Flash rather than mask ROM, and many provide some means for connection to a PC for [[firmware]] updates; a digital audio player's might be updated to support a new [[file format]] for instance. Some hobbyists have taken advantage of this flexibility to reprogram consumer products for new purposes; for example, the [[iPodLinux]] and [[OpenWRT]] projects have enabled users to run full-featured [[Linux]] [[Linux distribution|distribution]]s on their MP3 players and wireless routers, respectively.\n\nROM is also useful for binary storage of [[cryptographic]] data, as it makes them difficult to replace, which may be desirable in order to enhance [[information security]].\n\n=== Use of ROM for data storage ===\n\nSince ROM (at least in hard-wired mask form) cannot be modified, it is really only suitable for storing data which is not expected to need modification for the life of the device. To that end, ROM has been used in many computers to store [[look-up table]]s for the evaluation of mathematical and logical functions (for example, a [[floating-point unit]] might [[Look-up table#Sine_Table_Example|tabulate the sine function]] to facilitate faster computation). This was especially effective when [[CPU]]s were slow and ROM was cheap compared to RAM.\n\nNotably, the [[display adapter]]s of early personal computers stored tables of bitmapped font characters in ROM. This usually meant that the text display [[font]] could not be changed interactively. This was the case for both the [[Color Graphics Adapter|CGA]] and [[Monochrome Display Adapter|MDA]] adapters available with the IBM PC XT.\n\nThe use of ROM to store such small amounts of data has disappeared almost completely in modern general-purpose computers. However, Flash ROM has taken on a new role as a medium for [[mass storage]] or [[secondary storage]] of files.\n\n== See also ==\n* [[Computer]]\n* [[Computer science]]\n* [[Electronics]]\n* [[Integrated circuit]]\n* [[Random access memory]]\n* [[Semiconductor]]\n\n== Notes ==\n<references/>\n\n== References ==\n* Jacob, Bruce, Spencer Ng, and David Wang. 2007. ''Memory Systems: Cache, DRAM, Disk.'' San Francisco, CA: Morgan Kaufmann. ISBN 978-0123797513\n* Millman, Jacob, and Arvin Grabel. 1988. ''Microelectronics'', 2nd ed. New York: McGraw-Hill. ISBN 007100596X\n* White, Ron. 2008. ''How Computers Work'', 9th ed. Indianapolis, IN: Que Pub. ISBN 978-0789736130\n* Young, Roger. 2002. ''How Computers Work: Processor and Main Memory.'' Bloomington, IN: 1st Books. ISBN 1403325820\n\n[[Category:Physical sciences]]\n[[Category:Computer science]]\n[[Category:Electronics]]\n\n{{credit|262093437}}"
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                "title": "Realism",
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                        "*": "{{submitted}}{{approved}}{{Paid}}{{copyedited}}\n'''Realism''' is a widely used term in the [[arts]]. In literature, it came into being as a response to [[Romanticism]]. While Romanticism focused on the inner, spiritual side of human nature, and was skewed toward the exceptional and [[Sublime]], Realism focused on the mundane, the everyday. Realism focussed on the ideology of objective reality and revolted against exaggerated emotionalism of Romanticism. It was more \"democratic\" in orientation, interested in the life of the majority, not the elite. As an artistic strategy, it was an attempt to focus literature on the objective, the concrete; the physical and social milieu was depicted in painstaking detail to convey the ethos of the society. Characters were portrayed in their social setting, which shaped their actions and their choices. Realism is often referred to as an attempt to portray things \"as they are,\" but in fact, it was itself another artistic strategy, employing verisimilitude for artistic ends. \n\nLiterary Realism began as a cultural movement with its roots in [[France]], where it was a very popular art form, not only in France but the in rest of Europe as well, from the mid to late 1800s. It was aided with the introduction of photography&mdash;a new visual source that created a desire for people to produce things that looked \u201cobjectively real.\u201d It became popular in America largely in the early twentieth century.\n{{toc}}\nIn the visual arts it refers to a style of depiction that attempts to portray subjects as they appear in everyday life, without embellishment or interpretation. The term is also used to describe works of art which, in revealing a truth, may emphasize the ugly or sordid. Realist artists focused on that side of \"reality\" which had often been excluded in Romantic art, the unflattering truth of the underside of elite culture.\n\n==Realism in literature==\nRealism is a literary technique practiced by many schools of writing. This style focuses particularly on the representation of middle-class life and is a reaction against [[Romanticism]]. According to William Harmon and Hugh Holman, \"Where romanticists transcend the immediate to find the ideal, and naturalists plumb the actual or superficial to find the scientific laws that control its actions, realists center their attention to a remarkable degree on the immediate, the here and now, the specific action, and the verifiable consequence\" (''A Handbook to Literature'' 428). \n\nIn American literature, the term \"realism\" encompasses the period of time from the [[American Civil War|Civil War]] to the turn of the century, during which [[William Dean Howells]], Rebecca Harding Davis, [[Henry James]], [[Samuel Clemens|Mark Twain]], and others wrote fiction devoted to accurate representation and exploration of American lives in various contexts.\n\nRealism was a movement that encompassed the entire country, or at least the Midwest and South, although many of the writers and critics associated with realism (notably W. D. Howells) were based in New England. Among the Midwestern writers considered realists would be Joseph Kirkland, E. W. Howe, and Hamlin Garland; the Southern writer John W. DeForest's ''Miss Ravenal's Conversion from Secession to Loyalty,'' is often considered a realist novel.\n\n===Key characteristics===\n*Renders reality closely and in comprehensive detail. Selective presentation of reality with an emphasis on verisimilitude, even at the expense of a well-made plot \n\n*Character is more important than action and plot; complex ethical choices are often the subject. \n\n*Characters appear in their real complexity of temperament and motive; they are in explicable relation to nature, to each other, to their social class, to their own past. \n\n*Class is important; the novel has traditionally served the interests and aspirations of an insurgent middle class. (See Ian Watt, ''The Rise of the Novel'') \n\n*Events will usually be plausible. Realistic novels avoid the sensational, dramatic elements of naturalistic novels and romances. \n\n*Diction is natural vernacular, not heightened or poetic; tone may be comic, satiric, or matter-of-fact. \n\n*Objectivity in presentation becomes increasingly important: Overt authorial comments or intrusions diminish as the century progresses. \n\n*Interior or psychological realism is a variant form. \n\n*In ''Black and White Strangers,'' Kenneth Warren suggests that a basic difference between realism and sentimentalism is that in realism, \"the redemption of the individual lay within the social world,\" but in sentimental fiction, \"the redemption of the social world lay with the individual\" (75-76). \n\n*The realism of James and Twain was critically acclaimed in twentieth century; Howellsian realism fell into disfavor as part of early twentieth century rebellion against the \"genteel tradition.\"<ref>[http://www.wsu.edu/~campbelld/amlit/realism.htm Realism in American Literature, 1860-1890.] Retrieved October 24, 2007.</ref>\n\n==Nineteenth century realism==\nRealism was a response to both [[Neoclassicism]] and [[Romanticism]], and for the entire group, history had no artistic relevance or importance.<ref>Frederick Hartt, ''Art: A History of Painting, Sculpture, and Architecture.''</ref> Gustave Courbet, the leader of the realism movement, defined Realism as a \"human conclusion which awakened the very forces of man against paganism, Greco-Roman art, the [[Renaissance]], [[Catholicism]], and the gods and demigods, in short against the conventional ideal.\" The Realists, who were influenced by the Dutch and Flemish naturalists of the seventeenth century, were dedicated wholeheartedly to an establishment founded on justice for the working class, the ordinary citizens of society. In fact, all the artists, politicians, economists, and critics congregated in the Andler Keller, a type of restaurant serving food at all hours, which eventually became known as the temple of Realism. In 1863, after being shunned by Count Nieuwerkerke at the Universal Exposition of 1855, Courbet and friends organized a Salon de Refus\u00e9s. This was an exhibition that included the works of those who are now recognized as the premier painters of the period. Astoundingly, two of the greatest Realist masters, Daumier and Courbet, were actually forced to serve prison sentences as a result of their involvement in the rebellion against uniformity.\n\n==Photography==\nWith the arrival of photography, the world of visual arts would be altered significantly. The idea of photography itself was not new, and some artists had even employed some form of it. The concept of photography revolved around light passing through a small aperture as it registers the image of its subjects upon any surface which it may strike. The '''''[[camera obscura]]''''' was used by artists throughout the ages and specialized particularly by Vermeer. Daguerreotypes soon became popular by the hundreds of thousands. The first photo portrait was made by [[Samuel F.B. Morse]], inventor of the telegraph. The possibilities were enormous, but for many artists, a point of concern. With the invention of photography, the art of portraiture would become almost non-existent. By 1858, photography was an assured fact, and photographers were able to prove at last how living beings really look in motion, to the great discomfiture of artists in the classic tradition with their contrived poses. In other words, photographs capture the essence of the action, the movement as it is, and there is absolutely no doubt in the veracity or accuracy of the photograph. This fits in perfectly with the realists because their sole focus is to portray the world, as it is, and not in a blown-up, romantic manner.\n\n==Painting in France==\n===Corot===\n\"Conceived in total isolation form the earliest photographic experiments, yet mysteriously parallel to them, the new objective style becomes apparent first in the quiet early landscapes of Jean-Baptiste-Camille Corot\" (Hartt). Corot strayed away from classical conventions and emphasized the sanctity of nature and the harmony of humanity and nature in the Italian landscape and the beauty of Italian light. The purpose of the light was to unify all objects on the canvas as on one plane.  Corot's primary concern was not as much for the figures in the painting as it is for the landscape. What must be noted is that although Corot was a realist, his work has very little in common with the somber tones of other Realist landscape painters. Corot's soft, silvery light was far away from reality, yet his landscapes were surely influenced by the reality of the photography in the nearly monochromatic and soft-focus landscapes of his later years.\n\n===Millet===\n\"Another painter who settled in the forest of Fontainebleau, at the village of Barbizon, and was not likely to be found among the Realists of the Andler Keller, was Jean Fran\u00e7ois Millet\" (Hartt). Millet preferred to live like a peasant and dedicated his life to the painting of peasants, in whose attachment to the soil he found a religious quality. Up to this point in art history, peasants had often been portrayed as moronic or senseless; however, Millet saw them as something more: Actors who were performing their role on the stage of life. His figures stride in almost angelic forms with a Michelangelesque grandeur.\n\n===Daumier===\nHonor\u00e9 Daumier was the realist most absorbed with the earth and ground. He worked in the lithograph technique, which involved drawing on porous stone with a pencil. The realist affiliation with peasantry and the working class shows in full bloom in Daumier's work. One of his most powerful lithographs, ''Rue Transonian, April 15, 1834,'' depicts an incident during the insurrection of that month in which all the inhabitants of a working-class house were slaughtered in reprisal for shots fired at a single soldier. Although Daumier was imprisoned as a result of these challenging creations, he continued to portray the working class as an allegorical hero who gathered old and young about him in a march through the grim streets of poverty. Instead of littering the canvas of his painting with hundreds of individuals and utter chaos, Daumier intelligently sketches in only a few heads, and hints at hundreds of windows with a few dark brushstrokes. This deliberate style creates extreme tension and an impending exposure of the herd of people creeping in the dark, closer and closer to the light. It wasn't until 1862, when his ''Third-Class Carriage'' demonstrated a concern for the fate of human beings. Ordinary people of both sexes and all ages are brought together physically, yet are spiritually isolated. Daumier's use of light and shade, and his implicit depiction of the mass with quick and free contours give the painting a much needed credibility in the era of realist painting.\n\n===Courbet===\nGustave Courbet was the apostle of Realism. He, like other Realist painters, was raised in poverty. Born in the poverty-ridden village of Ornans, Courbet came to Paris determined to leave an imprint on the art of the capital. He was devoted to concrete reality and the art of the past. Like Daumier, Courbet was a strong republican and champion of working-class rights and ideas. He said, \"The art of painting should consist only in the representation of objects which the artist can see and touch. I hold that the artists of a century are completely incapable of reproducing the things of a preceding or a future century\u2026 It is for this reason that I reject history painting when applied to the past. History painting is essentially contemporary\" (Hartt). Courbet's ''Stone Breakers'' created plenty of controversy and attracted criticism when it was exhibited at the Salon of 1850. A public that was submerged in the waves of romantic and neoclassicist ideals had no way of appreciating reality. This painting depicted the dehumanizing labor of breaking stones into gravel for road repairs. He conceals the faces of the figures to give it a universal ideology.\nAnother famous realist work of Gustave Courbet was ''A Burial at Ornans.'' He depicts the imminence of death hovering above people's heads. \"The inescapable end of an ordinary inhabitant of the village is represented with sober realism and a certain rough grandeur\" (Hartt). The canvas, about twenty-two feet long, was so large that the artist could not step back in the studio to see the whole work, yet it is throughly unified. The entire painting is constructed in an S-curve, with the figures standing with the simple dignity and embracing their destiny. Each face is painted with all of Courbet's dignity and sculptural density. The entire landscape is on level ground, with no figure towering above the other, which is the most appropriate depiction of a funeral. Courbet attempts to depict the reality of life, in this scene, by showing that in death, rich and poor, are all equal.\n\n==Painting in the United States==\n*'''Winslow Homer'''\nThe influence of Realism spread throughout Europe. Talented American artists arrived in France in the mid nineteenth century and were instantly impressed by the work of the Barbizon painters (Corot, Courbet). Winslow Homer adhered to the works of Courbet and particularly imitated his use of the density of substance and pigment. Corot's influence in his clarity of forms and space was discernible as well.\n\n*'''Thomas Eakins'''\nArguably the greatest native-born artist, [[Thomas Eakins]] visited France and Spain before returning back to the states in 1870.  His appreciation for the work of Spanish painter [[Vel\u00e1zquez]] was undeniable. His painting consisted of powerful works uncompromisingly founded on fact. Like Vel\u00e1zquez, Eakins' work searched the psychological analysis of great depth and emotional intensity, dryly painted, without the richness of the pigment in which Corot and Courbet delighted. Eakins was fascinated by the new art of photography, and used it as an aid in his researches into reality, becoming a remarkably proficient photographer himself. Eakins's work deals with an inherently repulsive subject not only in a direct and analytical manner, but also with a certain reverence for the mystery of human existence.\n\n==The Pre-Raphaelites==\nWhile the Realism movement was taking off in France and the United States, an independent but related revolution against official art was taking place among a group of extremely young and gifted English artists. The Pre-Raphaelite movement was founded in 1848, by youngsters William Holman Hunt and John Everett Millais. In the group were famed painters Dante Gabriel Rosetti and Ford Madox Brown. The name was given to them due to their belief that in spite of Raphael's greatness, the decline of art since his day was attributable to a misunderstanding of his principles. They demanded a precise realism in the smallest detail, founded perhaps on the early Netherlandish painters, but betrayed the influence of the daguerreotype. Visual honesty permeated throughout their work, as in all realist painters; however, the subject itself had to be important and invested with moral dignity, and the artist had to interpret it directly, as if it were happening in front of the observer, without any reference to accepted principles of composition, posing, or color.\n*John Everett Millais, ''Christ in the House of His Parents,'' Royal Academy (1850)\nThe Pre-Raphaelite style was prevalent best in this piece. The colors were unexpectedly bright and the figures, based on working-class models, reflected no interest in conventional beauty. The ordinary faces, particularly that of the weary Virgin Mary, brought down the denunciation of no less a figure than [[Charles Dickens]].\nWith time, the Pre-Raphaelites' position of transcendental honesty and moral dignity was perhaps too rigid to be maintained indefinitely. Although they were all long-lived, their styles changed eventually, and not always for the better. By the 1880s, the movement had been transformed into a new mixture of medievalism and aestheticism in which the original purity of the purpose was lost.\n\n==The rhetoric of Realism: Courbet and the origins of the [[Avant-Garde]]==\n\"The rhetoric of realism is not confined to artists in France; it is written across the age and across Europe. Karl Marx's manifesto depicts the movement of Realism at heart: \n:The bourgeoisie has stripped of its halo every occupation\n:hitherto honored and looked up with reverent awe. It has \n:converted the physician, the lawyer, the priest, the poet,\n:the man of science into its paid wage-laborers\u2026Constant\n:revolutioning of production, uninterrupted disturbance\n:of all social conditions, everlasting uncertainty and agi-\n:tation distinguish the bourgeois epoch from all earlier ones\n:...All that is solid melts into air, all that is holy is profaned,\n:and man is at last compelled to face with sober senses, his\n:real conditions of life, and his relations with his kind.\"<ref>F. Stephen Eisenman, ''Nineteenth Century Art, A Critical History.''</ref>\n\nMarx's words are congruent with images from Realist art.\n\n== The Realist doctrine==\n\"The doctrine of the Realists, like those of the Neoclassicists and the Romanticists could not be maintained for long in their original purity. Too many aspects of natural human feeling and imagination were excluded. But the immense historic value of Realism lay in its insistence on the priority of vision over either abstract principles of form and composition or emotional and narrative content. The Realist emphasis on the here and now was instrumental in the formation of Impressionism. It would reappear minimally in the twentieth century, and at times, was even more fanatical\" (Hartt).\n\n==Notes==\n<references/>\n==References==\n*Campbell, Donna M. [http://www.wsu.edu/~campbelld/amlit/realism.htm Literary Realism.] Retrieved August 13, 2007.\n*Eisenmann, Stephen F. ''Nineteenth Century Art, A Critical History.'' Thames and Hudson, 2002. ISBN 0500283354\n*Gardner, Helen. ''Art Through the Ages, Sixth Edition.'' Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Inc. 1975, ISBN 0155037536\n*Hartt, Frederick. ''Art: A History of Painting, Sculpture, Architecture.'' New York: Harry N. Abrams, 1989. ISBN 0810918846\n*Metropolitan Museum of Art. [http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/rmsq/hd_rmsq.htm A History of Romanesque Art.] Retrieved August 07, 2007.\n*West, Shearer. ''The Bullfinch Guide to Art.'' Bloomsbury Publishing Plc, 1996. ISBN 0-8212-2137-X\n\n==External links==\nAll links retrieved December 7, 2022.\n*[http://www.wsu.edu/~campbelld/amlit/realism.htm Article on American literary realism at the Literary Movements site] \n\n{{Westernart}}\n\n[[Category:Art, music, literature, sports and leisure]]\n[[category:Philosophy]]\n[[category:History]]\n[[category:Image wanted]]\n{{credits|Realism_(arts)|145929715}}"
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