Difference between revisions of "Hazing" - New World Encyclopedia

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[[Category: Politics and social sciences]]
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[[Category: Education]]
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[[File:1922 Cover of College Humor Magazine.jpg|thumb|300px|Paddling depicted on 1922 cover of ''College Humor'' magazine]]
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[[Category: Anthropology]]
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'''Hazing''' refers to any activity expected of someone in joining or participating in a group that humiliates, degrades, abuses, or endangers them regardless of a person's willingness to participate.
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Hazing is seen in many different types of social groups, including [[gang]]s, [[Team sport|sports teams]], [[school]]s, [[clique]]s, [[universities]], [[military unit]]s, [[prison]]s and [[fraternities and sororities]]. The [[initiation]] rites can range from relatively benign pranks to protracted patterns of behavior that rise to the level of [[criminal]] misconduct. In the most extreme, hazing has had fatal consequences.
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While the hazing experience is intended to increase commitment by new members, both to the other members and the purpose of the group, the abusive actions have led to numerous complaints and efforts to curtail the practice. In fact, hazing is often prohibited by [[Law]] or by institutions such as colleges and universities because it may include either [[physical abuse|physical]] or [[psychological abuse]]. However, due to the secretive nature of the initiation activities in many groups, and the senior members' unwillingness to forego the opportunity to be the perpetrators of acts similar to those they were victims of, this has been difficult to enforce. 
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==Psychology, sociology, purpose and effects==
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{{See also|Initiation|Rite of passage}}
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The practice of ritual abuse among social groups is not clearly understood. This is partly due to the secretive nature of the activities, especially within collegiate fraternities and sororities, and in part a result of long-term acceptance of hazing. Thus, it has been difficult for researchers to agree on the underlying social and psychological mechanisms that perpetuate hazing.
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[[Initiation]] rituals, such as those employed in hazing, have been theorized to lead to the development of social cohesion though [[group identification]] and [[identity fusion]].<ref>Harvey Whitehouse and Jonathan A. Lanman, [https://pure.qub.ac.uk/en/publications/the-ties-that-bind-us-ritual-fusion-and-identification The Ties That Bind Us] ''Current Anthropology'' 55(6) (2014): 674–695. Retrieved June 15, 2022.</ref> As well as group attraction, hazing initiations can also produce [[conformity]] among new members.<ref>Caroline F. Keating, Jason Pomerantz, et al., [https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2005-07159-004 Going to college and unpacking hazing: A functional approach to decrypting initiation practices among undergraduates] ''Group Dynamics: Theory, Research, and Practice'' 9(2) (2005): 104–126. Retrieved June 14, 2022. </ref>
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Hazing supposedly serves a deliberate purpose of building [[solidarity]]. Psychologist [[Robert Cialdini]] uses the framework of consistency and commitment to explain the phenomenon of hazing and the vigor and zeal to which practitioners of hazing persist in and defend these activities even when they are made illegal.<ref>Robert Cialdini, ''Influence: Science and Practice'' (Allyn & Bacon, 2000, ISBN 978-0321011473).</ref> Studies of hazing in college [[fraternities and sororities]], suggest that severe initiations produce [[cognitive dissonance]].<ref>Elliot Aronson and Judson Mills, [https://psycnet.apa.org/doiLanding?doi=10.1037%2Fh0047195 The effect of severity of initiation on liking for a group] ''Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology'' 59(2) (1959): 177–181. Retrieved June 14, 2022.</ref> Dissonance is then thought to produce feelings of strong group [[Interpersonal attraction|attraction]] among initiates after the experience, because they want to justify the effort expended.<ref>Leon Festinger, [https://psycnet.apa.org/record/1962-02261-001 The psychological effects of insufficient rewards] ''American Psychologist'' 16(1) (1961): 1–11. Retrieved June 14, 2022. </ref>
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On the other hand, [[Reward system|rewards]] during mild initiations have important consequences in that initiates who feel more rewarded express stronger group identity: A reward led to higher group identity than no reward. ... Interestingly, a mild initiation followed by a reward led to more group identity than a severe initiation followed by a reward.<ref>Caroline Kamau, [https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00207594.2012.663957 What does being initiated severely into a group do? The role of rewards] ''International Journal of Psychology'' 48(3) (2013): 399-406. Retrieved June 14, 2022.</ref> Such findings support the idea of group socialization proposed by Levine and Moreland in which the relationship between the individual and the group "is assumed to change in systematic ways over time and both parties are viewed as active social influence agents."<ref>John M. Levine and Richard L. Moreland, [https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/14792779543000093 Group Socialization: Theory and Research] ''European Review of Social Psychology'' 5(1) (1994): 305-336. Retrieved June 14, 2022.</ref>
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There are several psychological effects that both the hazer and hazee endure throughout the hazing process. Hazing can result in some positive outcomes: During the hazing process, a bond between the two parties (the hazer and the hazee) grows.<ref name=VanRaalte> Judy L. Van Raalte, Allen E. Cornelius, Darwyn E. Linder, and Britton W. Brewer, [https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2007-17885-007 The Relationship Between Hazing and Team Cohesion] ''Journal of Sport Behavior'', 30(4) (2007): 491–507. Retrieved June 23, 2022.</ref> Many people view hazing as an effective way to teach respect and develop discipline and loyalty within the group, and believe that hazing is a necessary component of initiation rites.<ref name=Hollmann>Barbara B. Hollmann, [https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/ss.57 Hazing: Hidden campus crime] ''New Directions for Student Services'' 2002(99) 2002:11-24. Retrieved June 23, 2022. </ref>
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In military circles hazing is sometimes assumed to test recruits under situations of stress and hostility. Although in no way a recreation of combat, hazing does put people into stressful situations that they are unable to control, which allegedly should weed out the weaker members prior to being put in situations where failure to perform will cost lives. The problem with this approach, according to opponents, is that the stress and hostility comes from ''inside'' the group, and not from ''outside'' as in actual combat situation, creating suspicion and distrust towards the superiors and comrades-in-arms.
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==Methods==
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Traditionally, [[college]] [[fraternities and sororities]] conduct initiation rituals known as hazing for potential new members ("Pledges"). Hazing activities can involve forms of ridicule and humiliation within the group or in public, while other hazing incidents are akin to pranks. A "[[snipe hunt]]" is such a prank, when a newcomer or credulous person is given an impossible task, such as being sent to find a tin of Tartan paint, or a "dough repair kit" in a bakery.<ref> Reinhold Aman (ed.), ''Maledicta 12'' (Maledicta Press, 1996, ISBN 978-0916500320).</ref>
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Spanking may be involved, mainly in the form of [[Paddle (spanking)|paddling]], sometimes over a lap, a knee, furniture, or a pillow. A variation of this (also as punishment) is trading licks. This practice is also used in the military.<ref name=Glavin>Chris Glavin, [https://www.k12academics.com/education-issues/hazing/methods Hazing Methods] ''K12 Academics''. Retrieved June 16, 2022.</ref>
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Submission to senior members of the group is common, often with meaningless tests of obedience such as waiting on others (as at fraternity parties) or various other forms of housework. In some cases, the hazee may be made to eat raw eggs, peppers, hot sauce, or drink too much alcohol. Some hazing even includes eating or drinking vile things such as bugs or rotting food.<ref name=Glavin/>
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The hazee may have to wear an imposed piece of clothing, outfit, item or something else worn by the victim in a way that would bring negative attention to the wearer. Examples include a uniform (such as a [[toga]]); a leash or collar; infantile and other humiliating dress and attire; and partial (or possibly complete) nudity.<ref name=Glavin/>
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==Scope==
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Hazing is a widespread phenomenon, known by a variety of terms and practiced in various institutions around the world. It is particularly popular in educational and military contexts, although other clubs and groups may also have hazing rituals for new recruits.
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===United States===
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Hazing practices in [[fraternity]] life began to appear shortly after the [[American Civil War|Civil War]]. Veterans brought the hazing practices of their battalions back with them, adopting such activities into fraternity life. The purpose of hazing was perceived as a way of providing young males an outlet to prove their manliness through rites and trials, showing themselves to be men and not boys. Other hazing practices served to put an individual in his place, reducing his sense of personal omnipotence to "subsume his individuality into something larger and better than himself."<ref> Emily Esfahani Smith, [https://newcriterion.com/issues/2015/5/on-fraternities-manliness On fraternities & manliness] ''The New Criterion'', May 2015. Retrieved June 25, 2022. </ref>
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A 2007 survey at American colleges found 55 percent of students in "clubs, teams, and organizations" experienced behavior the survey defined as hazing, including in varsity athletics and [[Fraternities and sororities|Greek-letter organizations]]. This survey found 47 percent of respondents experienced hazing before college, and in 25 percent of hazing cases, school staff were aware of the activity. 90% of students who experienced behavior the researchers defined as hazing did not consider themselves to have been hazed, and 95% of those who experienced what they themselves defined as hazing did not report it. The most common hazing-related activities reported in student groups included alcohol consumption, humiliation, isolation, sleep deprivation, and sex acts.<ref>Elizabeth J. Allan and Mary Madden, [http://www.stophazing.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/06/hazing_in_view_web1.pdf Hazing in View: College Students at Risk Initial Findings from the National Study of Student Hazing] ''National Study of Student Hazing'', March 11, 2008. Retrieved June 25, 2022.</ref>
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[[Police]] forces, especially those with a [[paramilitary]] tradition, or sub-units of police forces such as tactical teams, as well as rescue services, such as [[lifeguard]]s, also commonly have hazing rituals.<ref>[http://journaltimes.com/news/national/lifeguards-fired-for-hazing-new-squad-members/article_64593575-d16b-599b-80e6-f2caf8642c02.html Lifeguards fired for hazing new squad members] ''The Journal Times'', July 18, 1997. Retrieved June 25, 2022.</ref><ref> Eric S. Page, [https://www.nbcsandiego.com/news/local/city-probes-nude-lifeguard-hazing-incident/1922247/ City Probes Alleged Nude Lifeguard Hazing Incident] ''NBC San Diego'', August 11, 2010. Retrieved June 25, 2022.</ref>
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===Europe===
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Hazing is also quite common in [[Europe]] in both educational and military contexts. It is known by a variety of terms in the different languages.
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====Educational institutions====
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In some languages, terms with a [[religious]] theme are preferred, such as [[baptism]] or [[purgatory]] (for example ''Baptême'' in Belgian French, ''doop'' in Belgian Dutch, ''chrzciny'' in Polish) or variations on a theme of naïveté and the [[rite of passage]] such as a derivation from a term for freshman, for example ''bizutage'' in European French, ''ontgroening'' ("de-greenhorn") in Dutch and Afrikaans (South Africa and Namibia), ''novatada'' in Spanish (from ''novato'', meaning newcomer or rookie). In [[Latvia]]n, the word ''iesvētības'' (literally "in-blessings") also stands for religious rites of passage, especially [[confirmation]].
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Hazing rituals are a common practice in [[Belgium]] in student clubs (fraternities and sororities, called ''studentenclubs'') and student societies (called ''studentenverenigingen'', ''studentenkringen'' or ''faculteitskringen''). The latter is attached to the faculty of the university, while the first ones are privately operated. Hazing rituals in student societies have generally been safer than those in student clubs, precisely because they are to some extent regulated by universities.
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In the [[Netherlands]], the so-called 'traditional fraternities' have an introduction time which includes hazing rituals. The pledges go for a few days to a camp during which they undergo hazing rituals but are meanwhile introduced in the traditions of the fraternity. Often, pledges collect or perform chores to raise funds for charity. At the end of the hazing period, the inauguration of the new members take place.
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[[File:Baptismo praxe2005.jpg|right|300px|thumb|[[Freshman]] being "baptized" by older students]]
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The [[Portugal|Portuguese]] term '''Praxe''' (from the [[Greek language|Greek]] ''praxis'') describes the whole of [[student]] [[tradition]]s in [[University|universities]] or, more often, to the [[initiation]] [[ritual]]s freshmen are subjected to in some Portuguese universities. The ''Praxe'' is meant to initiate the freshmen into the University institution and to encourage the loss of social inhibitions.<ref name="green">Henrique Tigo, [http://www.regiaocentro.net/lugares/coimbra/praxe/default.asp Praxe Académica] ''Portal RegiaoCentro.net''. Retrieved June 25, 2022.</ref> Tradition, ritual, humor, joy and parody are some of the main ingredients of ''Praxe''.  Older students tend to produce funny situations and jokes with the freshmen; giving a warm welcome to them through initiation rituals. In most Portuguese higher education institutions, girls and boys have some gender-separated rituals to preserve dignity and respect.
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The roots of ''Praxe'' go as far back as the fourteenth century, but it became most known in the sixteenth century, under the name of the "Investidas", in the [[University of Coimbra]], the oldest of its kind in the country.<ref name="green"/> From Coimbra, the tradition spread into Lisbon and [[Porto]] in the nineteenth century, when those cities gained access to higher education and students from those same cities transferred closer to home and brought the ''Praxe'' and its customs with them. The ritual burning of the ribbons of ''[[Queima das Fitas]]'', the tradition of ripping and tearing of the newly graduates academic suit, the ''[[Festa das Latas]]'' with its Latada parade where the [[Freshman|freshmen]] walk throughout the streets with cans on their feet, the ''Cortejo da Queima'' parade of Queima das Fitas, among many other rituals, festivals, and traditions, are examples of events which are associated with ''Praxe''.
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====Military====
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In the [[Italy|Italian]] military, the term used was ''nonnismo'' (from ''nonno'', literally "grandfather"), a jargon term used for the soldiers who had already served for most of their draft period.
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A similar equivalent term exists in the [[Russian military]], where a hazing phenomenon known as ''dedovshchina'' exists referring to the senior corps of soldiers in their final year of [[conscription]]. ''Dedovshchina'' (lit. ''reign of grandfathers'') is the informal practice of hazing and [[abuse]] of junior [[conscription|conscripts]] historically in the [[Soviet Armed Forces]] and today in the [[Armed Forces of the Russian Federation|Russian armed forces]], [[Internal Troops]], and to a much lesser extent [[Federal Security Service of the Russian Federation|FSB]], [[Border Guard Service of Russia|Border Guards]], as well as the military forces of certain [[Post-Soviet states|former Soviet Republics]]. It consists of brutalization by more senior conscripts, [[Non-commissioned officer|NCOs]], and [[Officer (armed forces)|officers]].
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''Dedovshchina'' encompasses a variety of subordinating and humiliating activities undertaken by the junior ranks, from doing the chores of the senior ranks, to violent and sometimes deadly [[Physical abuse|physical]] and [[psychological abuse]], not unlike an extremely vicious form of [[bullying]] or [[torture]], including [[rape]].<ref>Luke Harding, [https://www.theguardian.com/world/2007/feb/14/russia.lukeharding Russian army sold recruits for sex, rights group claims] ''The Guardian'', February 14, 2007. Retrieved June 28, 2022.</ref>
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===Asia===
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'''Ragging''' is the term used for hazing in the [[Indian subcontinent]], including [[India]], [[Pakistan]], [[Bangladesh]], and [[Sri Lanka]]. Ragging involves abuse, humiliation, or harassment of new entrants or junior students by the senior students.
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Several highly reputed Indian colleges, especially medical ones have a history of ragging. Sometimes it is even considered to be a college tradition.
  
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'''''Hazing''''' is a [[ritualistic]] test and a task involving [[harassment]], [[abuse]] or [[humiliation]] used as a way of [[initiation |initiating]] a person into a gang, club, military organization or other group. The definition can refer to either physical (sometimes violent) or mental (possibly degrading) practices. It may also include nudity or sexually oriented activities. The word "hazing" is most frequently encountered in the [[United States]] and [[Canada]]. In some continental European languages, terms with a 'christening' theme or etymology are preferred (e.g. ''[[w:fr:baptême|baptême]]'' in French, ''doop'' in Dutch in Flanders) or variations on a theme of naïveté and the ''rite of passage'' such as a derivation from a term for freshman (e.g. ''[[w:fr:bizutage|bizutage]]'' in French, ''ontgroening'' 'de-green[horn]ing' in Dutch) or a combination of both, such as in the [[Finland|Finnish]] ''mopokaste'' (literally "moped baptism", "moped" being the nickname for freshmen, stemming from the concept that they would be barred from riding a full motorcycle by their age). In [[Sweden|Swedish]], the term used is "nollning", literally 'zeroing'. In [[Spain]], the term is "novatada" from "novato" meaning newcomer.  
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Ragging is widely prevalent in [[Sri Lanka]]. In Sri Lanka inception of ragging can be pleasant at first, hence the name 'Mal Samaya'. During this week or so, all newcomers are ordered to memorize the name and hometown of their peers as well as details of their immediate relatives. The objective of this exercise is said to be increasing the friendship among batch mates (locally termed as batch fit').
  
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Often most or all of the endurance, or at least the more serious ordeal, is concentrated in an orgiastic collective session, which may be called ''[[hell]] night'', or prolonged to a ''hell week'' and/or retreat or camp, sometimes again at the pledge's birthday (e.g. by [[Spanking#Birthday spanking|birthday spanking]]), but some traditions keep terrorizing ''pledge''s (a common term for the initiation candidates; alternative terms include [[newbie]], [[rookie]], mainly in athletic teams, and [[freshman]]) over a long period, resembling [[fagging]].  Hazing is often used as a method to promote group loyalty and camaraderie through shared suffering ([[male bonding]] in fraternities), either with fellow participants, past participants or both. A tentative explanation from [[evolutionary psychology]] is that grave hazing can condition the habituation and internalization of the psychological trait known as [[Stockholm syndrome]] in humans.{{Fact|date=September 2008}}
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==Controversies and efforts to curtail hazing==
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There have been numerous reports of problems related to hazing, ranging from damage to property, to injuries of various degrees of severity, including death, to criminal activities. As a result, there have been many efforts to curtail the practice, both on the instiutional and national levels.
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== History ==
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[[File:EarlyMACHazing.png|thumb|400px|The "Scenes of Hazing", as portrayed in an early student yearbook of the Massachusetts Agricultural College, circa 1879.]]
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{{main|Initiation|Rite of passage}}
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===United States===
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Hazing is often cited as one of the most harmful aspects of [[fraternities and sororities]] and poses a major threat to their existence, drawing great criticism from educators and administrators.<ref>Edward G. Whipple and Eileen G. Sullivan, [https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ss.8101 Greek Letter Organizations: Communities of Learners?] ''New Directions for Student Services'' 1998(81) (Spring 1998): 7-17. Retrieved June 29, 2022.</ref>
  
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[[Francisco de Quevedo]] includes a scene of students hazing one another in his [[picaresque]] novel ''[[El Buscón]]'' (1626).<ref>http://aaswebsv.aas.duke.edu/celestina/QUEVEDO-FD/BUSCON/</ref> In 1684, Joseph Webb was expelled from [[Harvard University|Harvard]] for hazing.<ref>{{cite|John Langdon Sibley| title=Biographical Sketches of Graduates of Harvard University. Volume 3 1678–1689. | page=303|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=MR05AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA303&lpg=PA303&dq=%22joseph+webb%22+harvard&source=web&ots=6rnT7PHpea&sig=UpxhQ5nJYaRWlrmLDCu6B9cew3g#PPR1,M1}}</ref>
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Hazing incidents including "beating or kicking to the point of traumatic injury or death, burning or branding, excessive calisthenics, being forced to eat unpleasant substances, and psychological or sexual abuse of both males and females." Reported coerced sexual activity is sometimes considered "horseplay" rather than rape.<ref name=Finkel>Michelle A. Finkel, [https://njbullying.org/documents/hazing-EDarticleFinkel2002.pdf Traumatic Injuries Caused By Hazing Practices] ''American Journal of Emergency Medicine'' 20(3) (May 2002): 228–233. Retrieved June 29, 2022.</ref> Between 1970 and 1999, 56 hazing deaths were reported.<ref>Hank Nuwer, ''Wrongs of Passage: Fraternities, Sororities, Hazing, and Binge Drinking'' (Indiana University Press, 2002, ISBN 978-0253214980).</ref>
  
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== Scope ==
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Colleges and universities sometimes avoid publicizing hazing incidents for fear of damaging institutional reputations or incurring financial liability to victims.<ref>Stephen Sweet, ''College and Society: An Introduction to the Sociological Imagination'' (Pearson, 2001, ISBN 978-0205305568). </ref> Also, hazing injuries are often not recognized for their true cause in emergency medical centers as hazing victims sometimes hide the real cause of injuries out of shame or to protect those who caused the harm. In protecting their abusers, hazing victims can be compared with victims of [[domestic violence]].<ref name=Finkel/>
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Hazing has been reported in a variety of social contexts. Sports teams ranging from amateur junior football leagues to professional clubs have used ritual hazing ceremonies to initate new members, especially when the new person is younger than the rest of the team. Academic [[fraternities]] and [[sororities]] have developed a number of complex hazing rituals that range from demeaning tasks to humiliating ceremonies. These practices are most common in, but not limited to, North American schools. Swedish students undergo a similar bonding period, known as ''nollningen'', in which all members of the entering class participate (see [[fraternities and sororities#Hazing issues|fraternities and sororities]] for more information. College and universities in general, from [[Ivy league]] to smaller institutions, such as the officially sanctioned '[[Kangaroo Court]]' at [[Quincy University]], Illinois have also been associated with hazing rituals {{Fact|date=January 2007}}. Other groups within university life that have hazing rituals include competition teams, fan clubs, social groups, secret societies and even certain [[service club]]s, or rather their local chapters (such as some modern US [[Freemasonry|Freemasons]]; not traditional masonic lodges).   While hazing is less common in high schools, some secondary education institutions have developed hazing rituals. [[High School]] and [[College]] [[Marching band]]s and choral groups sometimes have hazing rituals.
 
  
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The armed forces in various countries have long had hazing rituals, which often involve violence and punsihments. In the US hard hazing practices from [[World War I]] [[boot camp]]s were introduced into colleges. In [[Poland]] army hazing is called Polish ''fala'' "wave" adopted pre-World War I from non-Polish armies. In the [[Russian army]] (formerly the [[Red Army]]) hazing is called "[[Dedovshchina]]". Police forces, especially those with a [[paramilitary]] tradition, or sub-units of police forces such as tactical teams, may also have hazing rituals. Rescue services, such as [[lifeguard]]s or air-sea reascue teams may have hazing rituals. The senior ranks with in Boy Scout and Girl Scout Troops have sometimes developed hazing practices. Some workplaces use hazing to initiate newly hired employees. Inmate hazing is also common at prisons around the world, including frequent reports of beatings and sexual assaults by fellow inmates.  
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As fraternities and sororities are very diverse in their structures, regulations, governing entities, and memberships, and as hazing can take on many forms, the issue of hazing within these organizations is complex and multifaceted.
  
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It is a subjective matter where to draw to line between "normal" hazing (somewhat abusive) and a mere [[rite of passage]] (essentially bonding; proponents may argue they can coincide), and there is a gray area where exactly the other side passes over into sheer degrading, even harmful abuse that should not be tolerated even if accepted voluntarily (serious but avoidable accidents do still happen; deliberate abuse with similar grave medical consequences occurs, in some traditions rather often). Furthermore, as it must be a ritual ''initiation'', a different social context may mean a same treatment is technically hazing for some, not for others, e.g., a [[line-crossing ceremony]] when passing the equator at sea is hazing for the sailor while the extended (generally voluntary, more playful) application to passengers is not.
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Generally, institutions of higher education will have their own definitions of hazing, though they may closely mirror definitions found in their respective state statutes. For example, the [[University of Arizona]] notes that hazing is a violation of University of Arizona policy and Arizona State law, and provides the following definition of hazing in its "University of Arizona Hazing Policy":
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<blockquote>
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"Hazing" means any intentional, knowing or reckless act committed by a student, whether individually or in concert with other persons, against another student, and in which both of the following apply:
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(a) The act was committed in connection with an initiation into, an affiliation with or the maintenance of membership in any organization that is affiliated with the University.
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(b) The act contributes to a substantial risk of potential physical injury, mental harm or degradation or causes physical injury, mental harm or personal degradation.<ref>[https://greek.arizona.edu/fsp/hazing-policy-and-prevention Hazing Policy and Prevention] ''The University of Arizona''. Retrieved June 29, 2022.</ref></blockquote>
  
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== Controversy ==
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Many American educational institutions have developed anti-hazing programs, which encourage alternatives to hazing through the planning of purposeful activities, inform students of how to take action and avoid being a [[Bystander effect|bystander]], and provide clear consequences for those students and/or organizations who violate hazing policies.<ref name=Hollmann/> Additionally, hazing has become a central focus of programs designed to help Greek letter organizations become more value congruent through institutionalized standards and expectations <ref>Michael D. Shonrock, [https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/ss.8107 Standards and Expectations for Greek Letter Organizations] ''New Directions for Student Services'' 1998(81) (Spring 1998):79–85. Retrieved June 29, 2022.</ref>
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{{Original research|section|date=May 2007}}
 
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The practice of ritual abuse among social groups is poorly understood. This is partly due to the secretive nature of the activities, especially within collegiate fraternities and sororities, and in part a result of long-term acceptance of hazing. Thus, it has been difficult for researchers to agree on the underlying social and psychological mechanisms that perpetuate hazing. In military circles hazing is sometimes assumed to test recruits under situations of stress and hostility. Although in no way a recreation of combat, hazing does put people into stressful situations that they are unable to control, which allegedly should weed out those weaker members prior to being put in situations where failure to perform will cost lives. A portion of the training course known as [[SERE]] (Survive, Evade, Resist, Escape) simulates as closely as is feasible the physical and psychological conditions of a [[POW]] camp. Part of the purpose of SERE training is to train and test soldiers on their ability to resist methods of interrogation.  
 
  
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The problem with this approach, according to opponents, is that the stress and hostility comes from ''inside'' the group, from the assumed "good guys", and not from ''outside'' as in actual combat situation, creating suspicion and distrust towards the superiors and comrades-in-arms. A possible argument against the [[Stockholm Syndrome]] theory is that in order to be willing participants recruits may be motivated by a desire to prove to senior soldiers their stability in future combat situations, making the unit more secure. Blatantly brutal hazing can in fact produce negative results, making the units more prone to break, desert or mutiny than those without hazing traditions, as observed in the Russian army in [[Chechnya]], where units with the strongest traditions of [[dedovschina]] were the first to break and desert under enemy fire.{{Fact|date=August 2008}} At worst, hazing may lead into [[fragging]] incidents.
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Individual national Greek Letter Organizations have taken the initiative against activities related to hazing. For example, Phi Beta Sigma fraternity adopted an anti-hazing campaign to eradicate hazing practices in its individual chapters, providing numerous support resources to effectively combat the practice.<ref>[https://phibetasigma1914.org/anti-hazing/ Anti-Hazing] ''Phi Beta Sigma Fraternity, Inc.'' Retrieved June 29, 2022.</ref>
  
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Outside of the criminal context, a form of the syndrome may take place in military basic training, in which "training is a mildly traumatic experience intended to produce a bond," with the goal of forming military units which will remain loyal to each other even in life-threatening situations. It would be more difficult to make such a case in favour of hazing ceremonies in academic bodies and social clubs, where the origin is imitating educational (parental and school) discipline in substitute households and internal teaching.
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Attempts at preventing hazing have also targeted Greek letter organizations at the national level, even encouraging the closure of chapters that consistently partake in illegal and risky activities and pose threats to their local and university communities.<ref>L. Martin Cobb and Michael McRee, [https://issuu.com/afa1976/docs/spring_07_full Why We Should Close More Chapters] ''Perspectives'' (Spring 2007): 4–8. Retrieved June 29, 2022.</ref> Some have proposed the creation of a recognized pledge program in which national fraternity and sorority leaders participate, under the recognized supervision of university officials, as well as the yearly evaluation of fraternities and sororities to determine their eligibility for continued recognition and sponsorship.<ref>Hank Nuwer (ed.), ''The Hazing Reader'' (Indiana University Press, 2004, ISBN 0253216540).</ref>
  
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In a 1999 study, a survey of 3,293 collegiate athletes, coaches, athletic directors and deans found a variety of approaches to prevent hazing, including strong disciplinary and corrective measures for known cases, implementation of athletic, behavioral, and academic standards guiding recruitment; provisions for alternative bonding and recognition events for teams to prevent hazing; and law enforcement involvement in monitoring, investigating, and prosecuting hazing incidents.<ref>Dr. Nadine C. Hoover, Alfred University, 1999.</ref>Hoover's research suggested half of all college athletes are involved in alcohol-related hazing incidents, while one in five are involved in potentially illegal hazing incidents. Only another one in five was involved in what Hoover described as positive initiation events, such as taking team trips or running obstacle courses.
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However, such programs are difficult to implement since many Greek letter organizations, such as those governed by the [[National Pan-Hellenic Council]] (NPHC) and the [[National Association of Latino Fraternal Organizations]] (NALFO), prohibit their pledges (also known as “interests” or “new members”) from revealing their association with their organization until they have been initiated. As a result, it is difficult for institutions to reach out to members in anti-hazing efforts and virtually impossible for these pledges or interests to reach out for help, especially if they wish to remain members, pledges, or interests of their organizations.<ref>Cheryl E. Drout and Christie L. Corsoro, [https://www.sbp-journal.com/index.php/sbp/article/view/1279 Attitudes toward fraternity hazing among fraternity members, sorority members, and non-Greek students] ''Social Behavior and Personality: An international journal'' 31(6) (2003): 535-544. Retrieved June 25, 2022.</ref>
  
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"Athletes most at risk for any kind of hazing for college sports were men; non-Greek members; and either swimmers, divers, soccer players, or lacrosse players. The campuses where hazing was most likely to occur were primarily in eastern or southern states with no anti-hazing laws. The campuses were rural, residential, and had Greek systems," Hoover wrote. Hoover uses the term "Greek" to refer to U.S.-style [[fraternities and sororities]]. Non-fraternity members were most at risk of hazing, Hoover reported. Football players are most at risk of potentially dangerous or illegal hazing, the study found. In the May issue of the American Journal of Emergency Medicine, Michelle Finkel, [[Doctor of Medicine|MD]], reported that hazing injuries are often not recognized for their true cause in emergency medical centers. The doctor said hazing victims sometimes hide the real cause of injuries out of shame or to protect those who caused the harm. In protecting their abusers, hazing victims can be compared with victims of domestic violence, Finkel wrote.{{Fact|date=January 2007}}
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===Europe===
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Various incidents in European countries have been reported, leading to attempts to curtail hazing activities, and in some cases to legal action against the perpetrators and the institutions.
  
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Finkel cites hazing incidents including "[[Beating up|beating]] or [[kicking]] to the point of [[Physical trauma|traumatic]] [[injury]] or [[death]], [[burning]] or [[branding persons|branding]], excessive [[calisthenics]], being forced to eat unpleasant substances, and psychological or sexual abuse of both males and females". Reported coerced sexual activity is sometimes considered "horseplay" rather than rape, she wrote. Finkel quoted from Hank Nuwer's book Wrongs of Passage which counted 56 hazing deaths between 1970 and [[1999]].<ref>The updated list of hazing deaths in colleges is at http://hazing.hanknuwer.com/listoflists.html</ref> Even in the modern western military, which combines discipline with welfare priorities, initiation practices can cause controversy. Although not a part of the training programme of the British [[Royal Marines]], there is a tradition (in many military - especially elite - corps) of subjecting the newly trained ranks to a hell night-like "joining run", a macho preparation of men in the prime of their lives for the ordeals of warfare, going beyond what most civilians (and even many service personnel) would find acceptable; it usually combines humiliation (such as nudity) with physical endurance.
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In 2018 in [[Belgium]], twenty-year-old student Sanda Dia died from multiple organ failure in the Reuzegom hazing ritual. The student society had attracted negative attention in the past, having been accused of animal cruelty during a hazing incident in 2009, for which the members involved were forced to pay a fine.<ref>Ronald Tipan, [https://www.veto.be/artikel/ku-leuven-student-died-after-hazing-gets-out-of-hand KU Leuven Student Died After Hazing Gets Out of Hand] ''Veto'', December 14, 2018. Retrieved June 29, 2022.</ref> [[KU Leuven]] drew up a hazing [[charter]] that was to be signed by student societies, fraternities and sororities. Signing the charter would have been a pledge to notify the city of the place and time of the hazing ceremony, and to abstain from violence, racism, extortion, bullying, sexual assault, discrimination, and the use of vertebrate animals. However a number of clubs refused to sign the new charter, arguing they did not want to lose their independence and rejected the rule that obliges them to report each hazing ahead.<ref>[https://www.vrt.be/vrtnws/en/2019/03/01/28-student-clubs-refuse-to-sign-the-new-hazing-charter/ 28 student clubs refuse to sign new hazing charter, "a real disgrace" says minister] ''Flanders News'', March 1, 2019. Retrieved June 29, 2022.</ref>
  
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In November 2005, there was an internationally publicised incident when a video of an extreme case of such a joining run, made secretly in May 2005, was released to the printed and broadcasting media. It showed newly trained Marines, one group naked with others watching, fighting each other with mats wrapped around their arms, and one being kicked in the face after refusing to remove the padding and fight barefisted. "When one falls, a man in a fancy dress surgeon's outfit - allegedly an NCO - kicks him in the face, leaving him unconscious", according to the Telegraph.{{Fact|date=January 2007}} The victim, according to the [[BBC]], said "It's just Marine humour".{{Fact|date=January 2007}} The Marine who leaked the video said "The guy laid out was inches from being dead". Under further investigation, the Marines had just returned from a six month tour of Iraq, and were in their 'cooling down' period, in which they spend two weeks at a naval base before they are allowed back into society. The man who suffered the kick to the head did not press charges.
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In Portugal, some ''Praxe'' rituals have been accused of going against the principles set in the modern codes of the ''Praxe'',<ref name="green"/> with the older students taking the ''Praxe'' too far, such that the initiation rituals, jokes, and traditions are degraded into humiliation and violence. Such incidents have led to criticism against the ''Praxe'', and the creation of student organizations against it.  
  
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=== Crime ===
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In some cases criminal activities have been involved. In the 2000s, the Ministry of Higher Education, [[Mariano Gago]], was called by students who wished to see justice applied against abusers, as the institutions themselves ignored their complaints. The first case of abuse in the ''Praxe'' involving court action against 6 perpetrators, happened in 2003 at an agricultural [[polytechnic (Portugal)|polytechnic]] institution from [[Santarém, Portugal|Santarém]] – the ''Escola Agrária de Santarém of the [[Instituto Politécnico de Santarém]]''. Driven by a driver of the polytechnic, a van from the school was used in the process. In 2008, the students were convicted of the crimes of bodily harm and coercion.<ref>  
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In the U.S. hazing has resulted in several deaths and serious injuries. [[Matt's Law|Matthew Carrington]] was killed at [[California]]'s [[California State University, Chico|Chico State University]] on [[February 2]], [[2005]]. As a direct result a number of colleges and parents, as well as sorority and fraternity members are taking steps to bring an end to criminal hazing practices. Hazing is considered a felony in several U.S. states, and anti-hazing legislation has been proposed in other states. SB 1454, or [[Matt's Law]], was developed in Carrington’s memory, and is one bill up for legislation to eliminate hazing in California. There is anti-hazing legislation in several countries, e.g. in France (the French term is ''bizutage'') imposing a punishment up to six months in prison or 7,500 [[euro]]s. In the [[Philippines]], hazing accompanied by any forms of temporary or permanent physical injuries (from light injuries to injuries resulting to death), sexual abuse (in any form) or any acts that lead to mental incapacity are punishable by law. Penalties vary depending on how serious the offense is.<ref name+"rpantihazing">[http://www.chanrobles.com/antihazinglaw.htm] The Philippine Anti-Hazing Law. From the Virtual Library of the Chan Robles Law Office (a law firm based in the Philippines)</ref>
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Alexandra Serodio, [https://web.archive.org/web/20131002124317/http://www.jn.pt/PaginaInicial/Policia/Interior.aspx?content_id=1325034 Relação de Évora condena praxes violentas] ''Jornal de Noticias''. Retrieved June 29, 2022.</ref>  
  
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In [[Indonesia]], 35 people died since 1993 as a result of hazing initiation rites in the Institute of Public Service (IPDN). The latest is in April 2007 when [[Cliff Muntu]] died after being beaten by the seniors.<ref>[http://www.detiknews.com/index.php/detik.read/tahun/2007/bulan/04/tgl/09/time/101747/idnews/764475/idkanal/10 Inu Kencana, Whistleblower from IPDN]</ref> The video of the hazing initiation rites can be viewed on [http://youtube.com/watch?v=7Rs3FpxxeVY Youtube].
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In 2001 Diogo Macedo, a fourth year Architecture student of the Universidade Lusíada of Vila Nova de Famalicão, died from wounds resulting of massive trauma to his spine which the coroner ruled as having been dealt by a blunt object during a praxe event. Judicial proceedings found that the university was guilty of not supervising such events on campus grounds and award the parents of the deceased student 90,000 euros. Two suspects were arraigned as defendants but in 2004 the case would be closed due to insufficient evidence to proceed any further.
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In India, ragging has been banned for the last few years (though implementation of the law continues to be a problem since the victims rarely, if ever, speak out). Recently, in a historical judgement, the Hon. Supreme Court of India directed the police to lodge criminal cases against those accused of ragging. State governments have also been ordered to deal with ragging (hazing) strictly. In Russia the victim of a high-profile hazing attack, [[Andrei Sychyov]] required the amputation of his legs and genitalia after he was forced to squat for three hours whilst being beaten and tortured by a group on New Years' Eve 2005. The brutal attack on Sychyov, and its horrific consequences highlighted the widespread problem of dedovshchina - or hazing - in the Russian armed forces. The instigator of the attack, Sergeant Alexander Sivyakov was eventually jailed for four years.
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<ref>[https://www.jn.pt/sociedade/universidade-paga-indemnizacao-por-morte-de-aluno-em-praxe-1373990.html Universidade paga indemnização por morte de aluno em praxe] ''JN'', September 27, 2009. Retrieved June 29, 2022.</ref>
  
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== Methods ==
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Hazing incidents are rare in the [[Republic of Ireland]], but are known at certain elite educational institutions. Hazing took place at [[Dublin City University]]'s Accounting & Finance Society in 2018, where first-years standing for committee positions had to complete a variety of sexualized games. The club was suspended for a year as a result.<ref>[https://www.irishexaminer.com/news/arid-30876421.html Organisers of 'hazing' event in DCU to attend respect and dignity training] ''Irish Examiner'', October 17, 2018. Retrieved June 28, 2022.</ref>
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{{Original research|section|date=May 2007}}
 
  
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Before the Great Depression, U.S. hazing achieved an art form status amongst benevolent fraternities such as the [[Moose International|Mooses]] and the [[Freemasons]]. The [http://www.phoenixmasonry.org/masonicmuseum/demoulin/ DeMoulin Catalog] is a catalog of many hazing implements used, most famously the [[electric carpet]].
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Hazing also occurs in sports societies. A report on [[Gaelic games]] county players noted that 6 percent of players reported were aware of forced [[binge drinking]] as a form of hazing.<ref>Sean McCarthaigh, [https://www.irishexaminer.com/news/arid-40730772.html Top GAA stars at risk from binge drinking, study finds] ''Irish Examiner'', October 27, 2021. Retrieved June 25, 2022.</ref> [[Dublin University Boat Club]] are known for hazing, with rituals including consumption of [[Alcohol (drug)|alcohol]], stripping to ones underwear, caning with [[bamboo]] rods, push-ups, being shouted at, standing in the rain, being tied together by shoelaces and crawling a maze while being hit with pillows.<ref> Edmund Heaphy and Cormac Watson, [https://universitytimes.ie/2019/01/whipping-secrecy-and-coercion-inside-boat-clubs-hazing-culture/ Whipping, Secrecy and Coercion: Inside Boat Club’s Hazing Culture] ''The University Times'', January 29, 2019. Retrieved June 29, 2022.</ref>
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In many cases nowadays, the hardest abuse is usually only enacted for a photograph (sometimes even posted on the Internet) or video. Reported hazing activities can involve all kinds of ridicule and humiliation within the group or in public — many of which could easily be considered abusive if a candidate were not a consenting adult — while others are quite innocent, akin to pranks. [[Spanking|''Spanking'']] is done mainly in the form of [[Paddle (spanking)|paddling]] among fraternities, sororities and similar (e.g., athletic) clubs, sometimes over a lap, a knee, furniture or a pillow (pile), but mostly with the victim 'assuming the position,' i.e., simply bending over forward. A variation of this (also as punishment) is [[trading licks]]. This practice is also used in the military (where a new round of hazing can follow a promotion, etc.). Alternative modes (including bare-buttock paddling, strapping and switching, as well as mock forms of antiquated forms of [[physical punishment]]s such as [[stocks]], walking the plank and [[running the gauntlet]]) have been reported in the US and other countries, even though all hazing is officially illegal in many.
 
  
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The hazee may be humiliated by being hosed by sprinkler, buckets or hoses; covered with dirt or with (sometimes rotten) food such as eggs, tomatoes and flour (also as a food fight etc.), even urinated upon. Olive or baby oil may be used to 'show off' the bare skin, for wrestling or just slipperiness, e.g., to complicate pole climbing. Cleaning may be limited to a dive into water, hosing down or even paddling the worst off. They may have to do tedious cleaning including swabbing the decks, cleaning the toilets with a toothbrush. In fraternities, pledges often must clean up a mess intentionally made by brothers which can include fecal matter, urine, dead animals or "road kill", and other disgusting items.
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There have been reports that many young men are killed or commit suicide every year in Russia because of ''dedovshchina''.<ref>[https://www.hrw.org/reports/2004/russia1004/6.htm The Consequences of Dedovshchina], ''Human Rights Watch'', October 2004. Retrieved June 29, 2022.</ref> ''[[The New York Times]]'' reported that in 2006 at least 292 Russian soldiers were killed by ''dedovshchina'' (although the Russian military only admits that 16 soldiers were directly murdered by acts of ''dedovshchina'' and claims that the rest committed suicide), as well as several thousand reports of abuse: "On Aug. 4, it was announced by the chief military prosecutor that there had been 3,500 reports of abuse already this year (2006), compared with 2,798 in 2005".<ref name="nyt">Steven Lee Myers, [https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9E06E7DF173EF930A2575BC0A9609C8B63 Hazing Trial Bares a Dark Side of Russia's Military] ''The New York Times'', August 13, 2006. Retrieved June 29, 2022.</ref> The [[BBC]] meanwhile reported that in 2007, 341 soldiers committed suicide, a 15 percent reduction over the previous year.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/7425694.stm Russia army suicides cause alarm] ''BBC News'', May 29, 2008. Retrieved June 29, 2022.</ref>
  
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Servitude such as waiting on others (as at fraternity parties) or various other forms of housework, often with pointless tests of obedience. In some cases, the hazee may be made  to eat raw eggs, peppers, hot sauce, or drink too much alcohol (in the form of beer, wine, or spirits). Some hazing even includes eating or drinking vile things such as bugs or rotting food. The hazee may have to eat food and/or drinks from an absurd container (frisbee, dog bowl, glasses tied to a ski for a collective gulping...) or through a straw, food fights, finding something in a messy dish without hands.  
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Overall, the Russian state has done little to curtail ''dedovshchina''. In 2003, on the specific issues of denial of food and poor nutrition, Deputy Minister of Defence V. Isakov denied the existence of such problems.<ref>[https://www.hrw.org/reports/2003/russia1103/4.htm#_Toc55717189 To Serve without Health?] ''Human Rights Watch'', November 2003. Retrieved June 29, 2022.</ref>
  
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The hazee may have to wear an imposed piece of clothing, outfit, item or something else worn by the victim in a way that would bring negative attention to the wearer. Examples include a uniform (e.g. [[toga]], especially in Greek societies; a leash and/or collar (also associated with SM bondage); infantile and other humiliating dress and attire (e.g., diapers, underwear (sometimes of the opposite sex; sometimes wet to make it see-through) or a condom on the head; cross-dress or fake breasts; wearing just a box or a barrel; bunny costume; a phallus or dildo, even in explicitly homo-erotic poses.  
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===Asia===
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Ragging involves abuse, humiliation, or harassment of new entrants or junior students by the senior students. It often takes a malignant form wherein the newcomers may be subjected to [[psychological torture|psychological]] or [[physical torture|physical]] torture.
  
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In some cases, the hazee may be completely or partially in a state of [[nudity]] (with or without cupping of the genitals). In the case of partial nudity, victims are sometimes allowed just an apron, [[jockstrap]], [[loincloth]] or improvised version, [[thongs]], towel, (under)pants torn or altered to expose the wearer's genitals, a strategically placed sock or tie, a tool belt, cardboard box, wrapping paper, foil or duct tape. Duct tape can be applied to the mouth, crotch and/or nipples. Sometimes the rule is 'anything but clothes', or victims are made to hold their crotches. A variation in use in Germany is the 'clothesline', i.e., contributing garments (usually remaining decent, e.g., in swim suit) to form a long line. In Sweden, gymnasium (high school, 16 to 19 years old) and university also use the clothes line. Girls strip to their [[G-string|thong]], but may keep their bra on if they wish; boys are always expected to finish up naked, thus being jeered at and humiliated by the crowd. Holding lowered trousers, shorts and/or underwear up 'revealingly'. Forced [[mooning]], sometimes accompanied by smacking by a senior or mutually. [[Wedgie]]s or things put in the underpants
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Ragging has become increasingly unpopular in [[India]] due to complaints of serious injury to the victims.<ref>[https://www.firstpost.com/health/the-serious-effects-of-ragging-on-students-well-being-7201321.html Ragging can demolish a student - both mentally and physically] ''FirstPost'', August 21, 2019. Retrieved June 30, 2022.</ref><ref>Amit Sen, Mohan Rao, Shekhar Seshadri, and Shobna Sonpar, [https://indianexpress.com/article/explained/understanding-colleges-anti-ragging-act-4777974/lite/ Understanding ragging: Ahead of the academic season, a look at the problem, its impact]|''The Indian Express'', August 2, 2017. Retrieved June 30, 2022.</ref>
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[[Image:hearts.jpg|right|thumb|[[Human branding|Branding]] as fraternity initiation]]
 
  
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Markings may also be made on clothing or bare skin. They are painted, written, tattooed or shaved on, sometimes collectively forming a message (one letter, syllable or word on each pledge) or may receive [[tarring and feathering]] (or rather a mock version using some glue) or [[Human branding|branding]]. Being tied together by the underwear, thus complicating/rendering any ridiculous task, e.g., eating together while all participants hands or food containers are tied to a long stick. Quizzes relating to their school, fraternity or club history, rules and traditions and then tested on it. Such “exam” may however also be given unannounced or even on 'general knowledge'. As the punishments for wrong answers can constitute the "real fun", trick or nearly unsolvable questions are likely.
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Following Supreme Court orders, a National Anti-Ragging Helpline was launched by the Indian government.<ref>[https://www.ugc.ac.in/page/helpline.aspx Anti-Ragging Helpline] ''University Grants Commission''. Retrieved June 30, 2022. </ref>
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Slave-like veneration of the seniors and thus verbal or physical submission to them, is common. Abject 'etiquette' required of pledges or subordinates may include prostration, kneeling, literal groveling, kissing/licking/washing/worshipping/massaging/rubbing/sucking/ body parts. This is usually to portray the pledge as a slave to the pledge is stripped at least to the waist, tied or held down and subjected to intense, prolonged [[tickling]] on the sides, ribs, feet and other sensitive spots, often by several ticklers at once.
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India's National Anti-Ragging Helpline started working in June 2009 to help students in distress due to ragging. It can be reached through email and a 24-hour toll-free number. Provision for anonymous complaints was considered of utmost important at the time of establishment of the helpline, since the victim after making the complaint remains with or close to the culprits, away from a fully secure environment.  
  
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Physical feats may be required, such as [[calisthenics]] and other physical tests, such as [[push-ups]] (sometimes a hazer keeps his/her foot on the pledges’ back), [[jumping jacks]] (under near impossible conditions), [[sit-ups]], [[mud wrestling]], forming a [[human pyramid]] or dog piling, climbing a greased pole, skinny diving, [[leap-frog]], human wheel-barrow etc., often with some twist. Exposure to the elements may be required, such as swimming or diving in cold water or snow. Holding ice water and/or having snow poured over a person or even sitting on ice in an open fridge holding more frozen objects. One variation involves a victim's arms tied to a shower head, where the shower is turned on leaving the victim drenched in cold water for long periods of time. Another example may involve a topless male whose lower torso is submerged under cold water with his bare chest and face exposed. Degrading positions and tasks include being locked up in a cage or barrel, commanded to move on all fours or crawl on their bellies, eat or fetch "doggy style", kiss or urinate in public).  
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The effectiveness of these measures are unknown; many accused of ragging freshmen are either let out with a warning or saved from legal action by political or [[Caste system in India|caste]] lobbyists.
  
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Orientation tests may be held, such as abandoning pledges far or fettered without transport, in the dark and/or in a public place. Dares include jumping from some height (bungee or in water), stealing from police or rival teams and obedience.  [[Blood wings|Blood pinning]] among military aviators (and many other elite groups) to celebrate becoming new pilots by piercing their chests with the sharp pins of aviator wings. Burning desiretests involve fireworks or burning objects (especially in mesh-form) fixed in the buttocks or on the testicles, remaining in position or running a distance. The ''[[elephant walk]]'' is a moving line of male pledges, often naked or at least pant-less, that imitates an elephant herd (holding each other by the tail in nature). Each pledge grabs the one in front of him by the privates (tail is also a euphemism for both the [[penis]] and the thus exposed butt, the favorite target in paddling traditions).  
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Legislation has been enacted in an attempt to enforce restrictions on ragging. For example, in 1999, the [[Government of Maharashtra]] enacted the Maharashtra Prohibition of Ragging Act, 1999 to prohibit ragging, based on the following definition:
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<blockquote>“Ragging” means display of disorderly conduct, doing of any act which causes or is likely to cause physical or psychological harm or raise apprehension or fear or shame or embarrassment to a student in any educational institution and includes— (i) teasing, abusing, threatening or playing practical jokes on, or causing hurt to, such student ; or (ii) asking a student to do any act or perform something which such student will not, in the ordinary course, willingly, do.<ref name=Maharashtra>[https://bombayhighcourt.nic.in/libweb/acts/1999.33.pdf The Maharashtra Prohibition of Ragging Act, 1999] ''Government Central Press, Mumbai'', 2012. Retrieved June 30, 2022.</ref></blockquote>
  
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Fundraising involves collecting money for the club or some charity, either by begging, selling a product, or performing services (such as washing cars). Lineups involve lining all of the pledges up shoulder to shoulder. The pledges are sometimes blindfolded and placed in a dark room. They are then forced to stand "at attention" while enduring several minutes, sometimes hours of verbal abuse from the brothers. Treasure hunts or [[scavenger hunt]] are sometimes used as a hazing ritual; the hazee is often instructed to steal items or move heavy objects. For example, a fraternity pledge who wishes to join the group may be asked to steal a desk from a university official's office, as a way of proving their commitment.
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The objective of the act is to create a framework to establish ragging as a criminal act, and lay out possible punishments under the law. Section 4 of the Act states:
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<blockquote>Whoever directly or indirectly commits, participates in, abets or propagates ragging within or outside any educational institution shall, on conviction, be punished with imprisonment for a term which may extend to two years and shall also be liable to a fine which may extend to ten thousand rupees.<ref name=Maharashtra/></blockquote>
  
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On his first ''[[crossing the equator]]'' in military and commercial navigation, each 'pollywog' (sailor; sometimes even passengers) is subjected to a series of endurances usually including running and/or crawling a gauntlet of abuse (soiling, paddling, etc.) and various scenes supposedly situated at King Neptune's court. A ''pledge auction'' is a variation on the [[slave auction (BDSM)|slave auction]], where people bid on the paraded (often exposed) pledges. It is held either as an open fund raiser where the general public (or just an invited sorority) can bid, or internally to decide which brother can impose his fantasies on which pledge. Sometimes, male pledges' prices depending on how little clothing the boy is allowed to wear. The "slaves" must do whatever the master orders, such as bringing drinks or preparing food.
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Students who have been convicted under this act may also be dismissed from their educational institution, and not be allowed to enroll in any other educational institution for five years. In addition, the act lays out a procedure by which education institutions should handle accusations of ragging, with suspension of the accused student(s) and investigation of the allegations, and holds those institutions accountable if they fail to act in the manner described. Under Section 7 of the Act, the head of the institution who fails or neglects to properly investigate such allegations "shall be deemed to have abetted the offense of ragging and shall, on conviction, be punished as provided for in section 4."<ref name=Maharashtra/> In other words, the school principal, chancellor, or other head faces the same punishment as a student who has been accused and convicted under this law.
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[[Image:Happycorner.png|thumb|175px|A Happy Corner]]
 
  
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The [[Happy Corner]], known in Taiwan as ''aluba'' ("hitting the tree"), Hongkong (as corning or being corned), and Norway (as ''stolping'' ' poling' or ''gjelling'' '[[gelding]]'), involves rubbing a lifted boy's groin against a tree or pole. Tickle torture is atypically mild: the pledge is stripped at least to the waist, tied or held down and subjected to intense, prolonged [[tickling]] on the sides, ribs, feet and other sensitive spots, often by several ticklers at once. [[Treeing]] is binding up with ropes, chains, handcuffs or other means, to a tree or pole, or in some variations on a cross (mock [[crucifixion]]) wearing only a loincloth,underwear, a diaper, or sometimes even nothing at all, to be helplessly abused and/or bound.
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It was applied in 2013, and resulted in the suspension of six students from [[Rajiv Gandhi Medical College]] in Mumbai.<ref>Nishikant Karlikar, [https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/thane/College-suspends-medical-students-for-ragging/articleshow/23230735.cms College suspends medical students for 'ragging'] ''The Times of India'', September 30, 2013. Retrieved June 30, 2022.</ref> The most notable case in which it has been applied is the [[suicide]] of Payal Tadvi, in which three senior medical students were charged under this act as well as under the [[Scheduled Caste and Scheduled Tribe (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989|Scheduled Caste and the Scheduled Tribe (Prevention of Atrocities) Act]], and the [[Information Technology Act, 2000]]. <ref name="Shelar">Jyoti Shelar, [https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/mumbai/what-does-states-anti-ragging-act-say/article27358658.ece What does State's anti-ragging Act say?] ''The Hindu'', May 31, 2019. Retrieved June 30, 2022.</ref> They were charged with ragging consisting of harassment, humiliation, and discrimination which directly led to her suicide.<ref>Sukanya Shantha, [https://thewire.in/rights/dr-payal-tadvi-suicide-chargesheet Payal Tadvi Case: Chargesheet Reveals Months of Humiliation, Discrimination] ''The Wire'', July 25, 2019. Retrieved June 30, 2022.</ref>
  
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The term ''tunnel'' seems to have various meanings in different traditions, such as a [[spanking tunnel]] or [[belting (beating)|belt-line]]. It may be appealing as a symbolic rite of passage: one goes in as a rookie and emerges as something of a brother or teammate. In [[rugby union]]: rookies are tested on their ability to both imbibe alcohol as well as specific skills in the game, such as sliding in mud.  
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The [[University Grants Commission (India)|University Grants Commission]] (UGC) has passed UGC regulation on curbing ragging in higher educational institutions, beginning in 2009 with updates in 2013 and 2016.<ref name=UGC2016>[https://www.ugc.ac.in/pdfnews/7823260_Anti-Ragging-3rd-Amendment.pdf Curbing the menace of Ragging in Higher Educational Institutions (third amendment), Regulations, 2016.] ''University Grants Commission'', June 29, 2016. Retrieved June 30, 2022. </ref> These regulation mandate every college responsibilities to curb ragging, including strict pre-emptive measures, like lodging freshers in a separate hostel, surprise raids at night by the anti-ragging squad, and submission of affidavits by all senior students and their parents taking oath not to indulge in ragging.
 +
In the 2016 amendment, the definition of ragging was updated to read:  
 +
<blockquote>Any act of physical or mental abuse (including bullying and exclusion) targeted at another student (fresher or otherwise) on the ground of colour, race, religion, caste, ethnicity, gender (including transgender), sexual orientation, appearance, nationality, regional origins, linguistic identity, place of birth, place of residence or economic background.<ref name=UGC2016/></blockquote>
  
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Blanket parties are most frequently conducted by groups within the [[military]] or [[military academies]]. In a blanket party, the victim is restrained by having a blanket flung over him and held down at the corners while he sleeps, then the remaining members of the group strike him repeatedly with improvised "flails" (a sock or bath towel containing something solid, most commonly a bar of [[soap]]). The act of the blanket party became widely known within pop culture by its portrayal in the [[Stanley Kubrick]] movie ''[[Full Metal Jacket]]''. The use of blanket parties and other forms of corporal punishment are now illegal within America's military.{{Fact|date=February 2008}} In various trades hazing for apprentices when finishing their [[apprentice]]ship: in printing, it consisted of applying to the apprentice's [[penis]] and [[testicles]] bronze blue, a color made from mixing black printers ink and dark blue printers ink which takes a long time to wash off; similarly, mechanics get their groin smeared with old dirty grease.
+
Ragging in [[Sri Lanka]] has a certain psychological basis: Many senior students state they do not wish to rag juniors but succumb to peer pressure. On the other hand, although some new students or freshers enjoyed being ragged by their seniors, other students despised it. Following their ragging they did not even wish to talk to the senior students who subjected them to "inhumane mental and physical torture." It was found that although ragging was intended to be a "social equalizer," in reality it "deepened the gap between the social classes."<ref>P.H.A.N.S. Jayasena, [http://dlib.pdn.ac.lk/bitstream/1/4129/1/P.H.A.N.S.Jayasena%202002.pdf Ragging in the University: A Problem in the Higher Education Institutions] ''Proceedings of the Annual Research Sessions, University of Peradeniya'' 7 (October 30, 2004): 54. Retrieved June 30, 2022.</ref>
  
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== References in popular culture ==
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Although ragging is a criminal offense in Sri Lanka under the Prohibition of Ragging and other Forms of Violence in Educational institutions Act, No. 20 of 1998 and carries a severe punishment,<ref>[https://www.lawnet.gov.lk/prohibition-of-ragging-and-other-forms-of-violence-in-educational-institutions-2/ Prohibition Of Ragging And Other Forms Of Violence In Educational Institutions] ''Ministry of Justice - Sri Lanka''. Retrieved June 30, 2022.</ref> several variations of ragging can be observed in universities around the country. Through the years this practice has worsened to all types of violence including sexual violence, harassment and has also claimed the lives of several students. The University Grants Commission of Sri Lanka, have set up several pathways to report ragging incidents, including a special office, helpline and a mobile app where students can make a complaint anonymously or seek help.<ref>[https://studentlanka.com/2019/07/02/ragging-in-sri-lankan-universities/ Ragging in Sri Lankan Universities] ''Student Sri Lanka'', July 2, 2019. Retrieved June 30, 2022.</ref>
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{{Trivia|date=June 2007}}
 
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Movies where hazing plays an important part in the plot and/or constitutes a forceful scene include ''[[if....]]'' (1968), ''[[Animal House]]'' (1978), ''[[Full Metal Jacket]]'' (1987), ''Sorority Babes in the Slimeball Bowl-O-Rama'' (1988, female pledges paddled during initiation ritual),
 
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''[[Dazed and Confused (film)|Dazed and Confused]]'' (1993; high school [[freshmen]] are put through many rituals, including fake "air raids", being covered in food, spanked with a paddle, and forced to lie in a trucks bed while it goes through the car wash), ''[[A Few Good Men]]'' (1992), ''[[The Lords of Discipline]]'' (1983), ''[[The Skulls (film)|The Skulls]]'' (2000), ''[[Old School (film)|Old School]]'' (2003), ''[[Jarhead (film)|Jarhead]]'' (2005), ''[[The Good Shepherd (film)|The Good Shepherd]]'' (2006), ''[[American Pie Presents: Beta House]]'' (2007).
 
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In Followers (2000), three friends want to pledge, but only the white ones are accepted, and must target their refused black friend.
 
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In Frat Brothers of the KVL (2007), a lacrosse team's excessively dangerous hazing gone out of control with fatal results is the main theme.  
 
  
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In the film ''[[Full Metal Jacket]]'' the members of a platoon in training give a blanket party to Private Leonard Lawrence (nicknamed Private Pyle, a reference to 1960's U.S. television character [[Gomer Pyle]]). In the film ''[[A Few Good Men]]''  a pivotal plot point is the death of Private Santiago; the extrajudicial punishment given to Santiago is referred to as a "Code Red," a term invented for the movie.
+
==Notes==
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''[[Sydney White]]'' (2007) included varying forms of hazing. The film ''[[Igby Goes Down]]'', about a cocky, bright young man's coming of age, begins with a blanket party ritual.
+
<references/>
  
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A number of TV series have depicted hazing. In ''[[Undergrads]]'' (2001), a character named Rocko wants to enter a fraternity, but they refuse to haze him because it is illegal, so he does it himself. "The Hazing" is the title of episode 1#6 (1969) of ''[[My Friend Tony]]''. "Purple Hazing" is the title of episode 1#8 (1999) of ''[[Power Play (TV series)|Power Play]]''. ''[[The Simpsons]]'' also included hazing in ''[[The Secret War of Lisa Simpson]]'', in which the current students of Rommelwood Academy force [[Lisa Simpson|Lisa]] and [[Bart Simpson|Bart]] through various pointless exercises, before accepting Bart and completely shunning Lisa. ''[[Family Guy]]'' recreated the hazing scene from ''[[Full Metal Jacket]]'' in the episode ''[[No Chris Left Behind]]''. Chris Griffin falls victim of a blanket party when he goes to a private boarding school, but instead of soap the socks he gets beaten with contain money. They also referenced hazing in a cutaway where an animated [[David Souter]] was forced to pick up a cherry with his buttocks, carry it through an obstacle course, and drop it into a mug of beer before he could be accepted into the [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]].
+
==References==
 +
* Aman, Reinhold (ed.). ''Maledicta 12''. Maledicta Press, 1996. ISBN 978-0916500320
 +
* Cialdini, Robert. ''Influence: Science and Practice''. Allyn & Bacon, 2000. ISBN 978-0321011473
 +
* Nuwer, Hank. ''Wrongs of Passage: Fraternities, Sororities, Hazing, and Binge Drinking''. Indiana University Press, 2002. ISBN 978-0253214980
 +
* Nuwer, Hank (ed.). ''The Hazing Reader''. Indiana University Press, 2004. ISBN  0253216540
 +
* Sweet, Stephen. ''College and Society: An Introduction to the Sociological Imagination''. Pearson, 2001. ISBN 978-0205305568
  
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Hazing was featured in the plot of ''[[CSI: Crime Scene Investigation]]'' Season 1 Episode 3 "Pledging Mr. Johnson". It was again used a plot device in ''[[CSI: New York]]''{{Fact|date=February 2008}} The pilot episode of ''[[Smallville (TV Series)|Smallville]]'' features a hazing ritual and its consequences. In ''[[The Office]]'' episode "[[Goodbye, Toby]]", Toby's replacement ([[Amy Ryan]]) is hazed by Dwight by having a [[racoon]] placed in her car. The [[American Broadcasting Company|ABC]] programme ''[[Greek (TV series)]]'' displays moderate hazing of pledges to two [[fraternities]] and one [[sorority]], where the fraternity pledges are made to dress up and run errands for seniors. [[Jessica Soho]] made a documentary about hazing in the Philippines. It featured the serious physical injuries inflicted by sorority members upon a willing and proud freshman.<ref>[http://www.gmanews.tv/story/112340/Sine-Totoo-presents-Kapuso-Mo-Jessica-Soho, Sine Totoo:  Kapuso Mo, Jessica Soho: Hazing, 08/10/2008]</ref> In the season two episode of the re-imagined ''[[Battlestar Galactica (re-imagining)|Battlestar Galactica]]'' episode entitled "[[Resurrection Ship]]", Lt. [[Karl Agathon]] and Chief Petty Officer [[Galen Tyrol]] receive a blanket party from several members of the [[Battlestar Pegasus]] crew for killing Lt. Thorn.  [[Jack Fisk (Battlestar Galactica)|Jack Fisk]] stops the crew members from killing Agathon and Tyrol.
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==External links==
 +
All links retrieved June 30, 2022.
  
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In ''[[Jack & Bobby]]'', frat pledge Ned meets his girl-friend, the college chancellor's daughter, being treed undressed in front of her house. In the ''[[JAG]]'' episode "The Brotherhood", Harm Rabb is suspicious of the members of Charlie company having blanket parties. In ''[[The Shield]]'' episode "[[Dominoes Falling]]" Julien is given a blanket party by a number of police officers as revenge for losing their jobs as a result of bullying him about his homosexuality. In the ''[[American Dad!]]'' episode "[[Bullocks To Stan]]," Stan Smith uses a blanket party in an attempt to toughen up Jeff. In the ''[[South Park]]'' episode "[[Lice Capades]]," when everyone thought Kenny had lice, [[Eric Cartman|Cartman]] tells everyone to get a sock and bar of soap. While it appears that they're going to give him a blanket party, they are actually going to wash him with the soap and dry him with the sock. In ''[[The Shield]]'' episode "[[Dragonchasers]]" [[Julien Lowe|Julien]] and two other police officers give a blanket party to a cross-dressing criminal who tried to infect [[Danielle Sofer|Danny]] with [[HIV]]. In one episode of ''[[The Wayans Bros.]]'' , brothers Marlon and Shawn have a stakeout in their apartment and throw their father a "blanket party" when he enters their home, mistaking him for a burglar who had previously robbed them.
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*[https://hazing.cornell.edu/ Hazing at Cornell]
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*[https://stophazing.org/ Stop Hazing]
  
  
  
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== Sources and references ==
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[[Category: Social sciences]]
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*[http://corpun.com/webmisc.htm World Corporal Punishment Research] Corporal punishment as initiation
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[[Category: Education]]
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* [[IMDB]] references by the [http://us.imdb.com/find?s=all&q=hazing word] and [http://us.imdb.com/keyword/hazing/ keyword]  
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[[Category: Anthropology]]
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{{reflist}}
 
  
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== External links ==
 
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{{external links}}
 
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* [http://www.gordie.org The Gordie Foundation] Non-profit organization dedicated to raising awareness about the dangers of hazing.
 
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* [http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=5195681242491426565&q=mslaw.edu+hazing Video: An inside look at hazing, by Massachusetts School of Law]
 
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* [http://www.stophazing.org stophazing.org] — "Educating to Eliminate Hazing"
 
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* [http://www.anti-hazing.com Hazing informational website]
 
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* [http://mill-valley.freemasonry.biz/initiation_misconceptions.htm No Hazing in Masonry]
 
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* [http://mill-valley.freemasonry.biz/worrel/freemasonry-initiation-rites.htm Initiation and the Rites of Freemasonry]
 
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* [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=o5K0GxO4N0k Hazing in Russian Army]
 
  
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{{Credits|Hazing|255184386}}
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{{Credits|Hazing|1088301053|Hazing_in_Greek_letter_organizations|1054344330|Ragging|1088505892|Praxe|1090357775}}

Revision as of 16:55, 30 June 2022

Paddling depicted on 1922 cover of College Humor magazine

Hazing refers to any activity expected of someone in joining or participating in a group that humiliates, degrades, abuses, or endangers them regardless of a person's willingness to participate.

Hazing is seen in many different types of social groups, including gangs, sports teams, schools, cliques, universities, military units, prisons and fraternities and sororities. The initiation rites can range from relatively benign pranks to protracted patterns of behavior that rise to the level of criminal misconduct. In the most extreme, hazing has had fatal consequences.

While the hazing experience is intended to increase commitment by new members, both to the other members and the purpose of the group, the abusive actions have led to numerous complaints and efforts to curtail the practice. In fact, hazing is often prohibited by Law or by institutions such as colleges and universities because it may include either physical or psychological abuse. However, due to the secretive nature of the initiation activities in many groups, and the senior members' unwillingness to forego the opportunity to be the perpetrators of acts similar to those they were victims of, this has been difficult to enforce.

Psychology, sociology, purpose and effects

See also: Initiation  and Rite of passage

The practice of ritual abuse among social groups is not clearly understood. This is partly due to the secretive nature of the activities, especially within collegiate fraternities and sororities, and in part a result of long-term acceptance of hazing. Thus, it has been difficult for researchers to agree on the underlying social and psychological mechanisms that perpetuate hazing.

Initiation rituals, such as those employed in hazing, have been theorized to lead to the development of social cohesion though group identification and identity fusion.[1] As well as group attraction, hazing initiations can also produce conformity among new members.[2]

Hazing supposedly serves a deliberate purpose of building solidarity. Psychologist Robert Cialdini uses the framework of consistency and commitment to explain the phenomenon of hazing and the vigor and zeal to which practitioners of hazing persist in and defend these activities even when they are made illegal.[3] Studies of hazing in college fraternities and sororities, suggest that severe initiations produce cognitive dissonance.[4] Dissonance is then thought to produce feelings of strong group attraction among initiates after the experience, because they want to justify the effort expended.[5]

On the other hand, rewards during mild initiations have important consequences in that initiates who feel more rewarded express stronger group identity: A reward led to higher group identity than no reward. ... Interestingly, a mild initiation followed by a reward led to more group identity than a severe initiation followed by a reward.[6] Such findings support the idea of group socialization proposed by Levine and Moreland in which the relationship between the individual and the group "is assumed to change in systematic ways over time and both parties are viewed as active social influence agents."[7]

There are several psychological effects that both the hazer and hazee endure throughout the hazing process. Hazing can result in some positive outcomes: During the hazing process, a bond between the two parties (the hazer and the hazee) grows.[8] Many people view hazing as an effective way to teach respect and develop discipline and loyalty within the group, and believe that hazing is a necessary component of initiation rites.[9]

In military circles hazing is sometimes assumed to test recruits under situations of stress and hostility. Although in no way a recreation of combat, hazing does put people into stressful situations that they are unable to control, which allegedly should weed out the weaker members prior to being put in situations where failure to perform will cost lives. The problem with this approach, according to opponents, is that the stress and hostility comes from inside the group, and not from outside as in actual combat situation, creating suspicion and distrust towards the superiors and comrades-in-arms.

Methods

Traditionally, college fraternities and sororities conduct initiation rituals known as hazing for potential new members ("Pledges"). Hazing activities can involve forms of ridicule and humiliation within the group or in public, while other hazing incidents are akin to pranks. A "snipe hunt" is such a prank, when a newcomer or credulous person is given an impossible task, such as being sent to find a tin of Tartan paint, or a "dough repair kit" in a bakery.[10]

Spanking may be involved, mainly in the form of paddling, sometimes over a lap, a knee, furniture, or a pillow. A variation of this (also as punishment) is trading licks. This practice is also used in the military.[11]

Submission to senior members of the group is common, often with meaningless tests of obedience such as waiting on others (as at fraternity parties) or various other forms of housework. In some cases, the hazee may be made to eat raw eggs, peppers, hot sauce, or drink too much alcohol. Some hazing even includes eating or drinking vile things such as bugs or rotting food.[11]

The hazee may have to wear an imposed piece of clothing, outfit, item or something else worn by the victim in a way that would bring negative attention to the wearer. Examples include a uniform (such as a toga); a leash or collar; infantile and other humiliating dress and attire; and partial (or possibly complete) nudity.[11]

Scope

Hazing is a widespread phenomenon, known by a variety of terms and practiced in various institutions around the world. It is particularly popular in educational and military contexts, although other clubs and groups may also have hazing rituals for new recruits.

United States

Hazing practices in fraternity life began to appear shortly after the Civil War. Veterans brought the hazing practices of their battalions back with them, adopting such activities into fraternity life. The purpose of hazing was perceived as a way of providing young males an outlet to prove their manliness through rites and trials, showing themselves to be men and not boys. Other hazing practices served to put an individual in his place, reducing his sense of personal omnipotence to "subsume his individuality into something larger and better than himself."[12]

A 2007 survey at American colleges found 55 percent of students in "clubs, teams, and organizations" experienced behavior the survey defined as hazing, including in varsity athletics and Greek-letter organizations. This survey found 47 percent of respondents experienced hazing before college, and in 25 percent of hazing cases, school staff were aware of the activity. 90% of students who experienced behavior the researchers defined as hazing did not consider themselves to have been hazed, and 95% of those who experienced what they themselves defined as hazing did not report it. The most common hazing-related activities reported in student groups included alcohol consumption, humiliation, isolation, sleep deprivation, and sex acts.[13]

Police forces, especially those with a paramilitary tradition, or sub-units of police forces such as tactical teams, as well as rescue services, such as lifeguards, also commonly have hazing rituals.[14][15]

Europe

Hazing is also quite common in Europe in both educational and military contexts. It is known by a variety of terms in the different languages.

Educational institutions

In some languages, terms with a religious theme are preferred, such as baptism or purgatory (for example Baptême in Belgian French, doop in Belgian Dutch, chrzciny in Polish) or variations on a theme of naïveté and the rite of passage such as a derivation from a term for freshman, for example bizutage in European French, ontgroening ("de-greenhorn") in Dutch and Afrikaans (South Africa and Namibia), novatada in Spanish (from novato, meaning newcomer or rookie). In Latvian, the word iesvētības (literally "in-blessings") also stands for religious rites of passage, especially confirmation.

Hazing rituals are a common practice in Belgium in student clubs (fraternities and sororities, called studentenclubs) and student societies (called studentenverenigingen, studentenkringen or faculteitskringen). The latter is attached to the faculty of the university, while the first ones are privately operated. Hazing rituals in student societies have generally been safer than those in student clubs, precisely because they are to some extent regulated by universities.

In the Netherlands, the so-called 'traditional fraternities' have an introduction time which includes hazing rituals. The pledges go for a few days to a camp during which they undergo hazing rituals but are meanwhile introduced in the traditions of the fraternity. Often, pledges collect or perform chores to raise funds for charity. At the end of the hazing period, the inauguration of the new members take place.

Freshman being "baptized" by older students

The Portuguese term Praxe (from the Greek praxis) describes the whole of student traditions in universities or, more often, to the initiation rituals freshmen are subjected to in some Portuguese universities. The Praxe is meant to initiate the freshmen into the University institution and to encourage the loss of social inhibitions.[16] Tradition, ritual, humor, joy and parody are some of the main ingredients of Praxe. Older students tend to produce funny situations and jokes with the freshmen; giving a warm welcome to them through initiation rituals. In most Portuguese higher education institutions, girls and boys have some gender-separated rituals to preserve dignity and respect.

The roots of Praxe go as far back as the fourteenth century, but it became most known in the sixteenth century, under the name of the "Investidas", in the University of Coimbra, the oldest of its kind in the country.[16] From Coimbra, the tradition spread into Lisbon and Porto in the nineteenth century, when those cities gained access to higher education and students from those same cities transferred closer to home and brought the Praxe and its customs with them. The ritual burning of the ribbons of Queima das Fitas, the tradition of ripping and tearing of the newly graduates academic suit, the Festa das Latas with its Latada parade where the freshmen walk throughout the streets with cans on their feet, the Cortejo da Queima parade of Queima das Fitas, among many other rituals, festivals, and traditions, are examples of events which are associated with Praxe.

Military

In the Italian military, the term used was nonnismo (from nonno, literally "grandfather"), a jargon term used for the soldiers who had already served for most of their draft period.

A similar equivalent term exists in the Russian military, where a hazing phenomenon known as dedovshchina exists referring to the senior corps of soldiers in their final year of conscription. Dedovshchina (lit. reign of grandfathers) is the informal practice of hazing and abuse of junior conscripts historically in the Soviet Armed Forces and today in the Russian armed forces, Internal Troops, and to a much lesser extent FSB, Border Guards, as well as the military forces of certain former Soviet Republics. It consists of brutalization by more senior conscripts, NCOs, and officers.

Dedovshchina encompasses a variety of subordinating and humiliating activities undertaken by the junior ranks, from doing the chores of the senior ranks, to violent and sometimes deadly physical and psychological abuse, not unlike an extremely vicious form of bullying or torture, including rape.[17]

Asia

Ragging is the term used for hazing in the Indian subcontinent, including India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Sri Lanka. Ragging involves abuse, humiliation, or harassment of new entrants or junior students by the senior students.

Several highly reputed Indian colleges, especially medical ones have a history of ragging. Sometimes it is even considered to be a college tradition.

Ragging is widely prevalent in Sri Lanka. In Sri Lanka inception of ragging can be pleasant at first, hence the name 'Mal Samaya'. During this week or so, all newcomers are ordered to memorize the name and hometown of their peers as well as details of their immediate relatives. The objective of this exercise is said to be increasing the friendship among batch mates (locally termed as batch fit').

Controversies and efforts to curtail hazing

There have been numerous reports of problems related to hazing, ranging from damage to property, to injuries of various degrees of severity, including death, to criminal activities. As a result, there have been many efforts to curtail the practice, both on the instiutional and national levels.

The "Scenes of Hazing", as portrayed in an early student yearbook of the Massachusetts Agricultural College, circa 1879.

United States

Hazing is often cited as one of the most harmful aspects of fraternities and sororities and poses a major threat to their existence, drawing great criticism from educators and administrators.[18]

Hazing incidents including "beating or kicking to the point of traumatic injury or death, burning or branding, excessive calisthenics, being forced to eat unpleasant substances, and psychological or sexual abuse of both males and females." Reported coerced sexual activity is sometimes considered "horseplay" rather than rape.[19] Between 1970 and 1999, 56 hazing deaths were reported.[20]

Colleges and universities sometimes avoid publicizing hazing incidents for fear of damaging institutional reputations or incurring financial liability to victims.[21] Also, hazing injuries are often not recognized for their true cause in emergency medical centers as hazing victims sometimes hide the real cause of injuries out of shame or to protect those who caused the harm. In protecting their abusers, hazing victims can be compared with victims of domestic violence.[19]

As fraternities and sororities are very diverse in their structures, regulations, governing entities, and memberships, and as hazing can take on many forms, the issue of hazing within these organizations is complex and multifaceted.

Generally, institutions of higher education will have their own definitions of hazing, though they may closely mirror definitions found in their respective state statutes. For example, the University of Arizona notes that hazing is a violation of University of Arizona policy and Arizona State law, and provides the following definition of hazing in its "University of Arizona Hazing Policy":

"Hazing" means any intentional, knowing or reckless act committed by a student, whether individually or in concert with other persons, against another student, and in which both of the following apply: (a) The act was committed in connection with an initiation into, an affiliation with or the maintenance of membership in any organization that is affiliated with the University.

(b) The act contributes to a substantial risk of potential physical injury, mental harm or degradation or causes physical injury, mental harm or personal degradation.[22]

Many American educational institutions have developed anti-hazing programs, which encourage alternatives to hazing through the planning of purposeful activities, inform students of how to take action and avoid being a bystander, and provide clear consequences for those students and/or organizations who violate hazing policies.[9] Additionally, hazing has become a central focus of programs designed to help Greek letter organizations become more value congruent through institutionalized standards and expectations [23]

Individual national Greek Letter Organizations have taken the initiative against activities related to hazing. For example, Phi Beta Sigma fraternity adopted an anti-hazing campaign to eradicate hazing practices in its individual chapters, providing numerous support resources to effectively combat the practice.[24]

Attempts at preventing hazing have also targeted Greek letter organizations at the national level, even encouraging the closure of chapters that consistently partake in illegal and risky activities and pose threats to their local and university communities.[25] Some have proposed the creation of a recognized pledge program in which national fraternity and sorority leaders participate, under the recognized supervision of university officials, as well as the yearly evaluation of fraternities and sororities to determine their eligibility for continued recognition and sponsorship.[26]

However, such programs are difficult to implement since many Greek letter organizations, such as those governed by the National Pan-Hellenic Council (NPHC) and the National Association of Latino Fraternal Organizations (NALFO), prohibit their pledges (also known as “interests” or “new members”) from revealing their association with their organization until they have been initiated. As a result, it is difficult for institutions to reach out to members in anti-hazing efforts and virtually impossible for these pledges or interests to reach out for help, especially if they wish to remain members, pledges, or interests of their organizations.[27]

Europe

Various incidents in European countries have been reported, leading to attempts to curtail hazing activities, and in some cases to legal action against the perpetrators and the institutions.

In 2018 in Belgium, twenty-year-old student Sanda Dia died from multiple organ failure in the Reuzegom hazing ritual. The student society had attracted negative attention in the past, having been accused of animal cruelty during a hazing incident in 2009, for which the members involved were forced to pay a fine.[28] KU Leuven drew up a hazing charter that was to be signed by student societies, fraternities and sororities. Signing the charter would have been a pledge to notify the city of the place and time of the hazing ceremony, and to abstain from violence, racism, extortion, bullying, sexual assault, discrimination, and the use of vertebrate animals. However a number of clubs refused to sign the new charter, arguing they did not want to lose their independence and rejected the rule that obliges them to report each hazing ahead.[29]

In Portugal, some Praxe rituals have been accused of going against the principles set in the modern codes of the Praxe,[16] with the older students taking the Praxe too far, such that the initiation rituals, jokes, and traditions are degraded into humiliation and violence. Such incidents have led to criticism against the Praxe, and the creation of student organizations against it.

In some cases criminal activities have been involved. In the 2000s, the Ministry of Higher Education, Mariano Gago, was called by students who wished to see justice applied against abusers, as the institutions themselves ignored their complaints. The first case of abuse in the Praxe involving court action against 6 perpetrators, happened in 2003 at an agricultural polytechnic institution from Santarém – the Escola Agrária de Santarém of the Instituto Politécnico de Santarém. Driven by a driver of the polytechnic, a van from the school was used in the process. In 2008, the students were convicted of the crimes of bodily harm and coercion.[30]

In 2001 Diogo Macedo, a fourth year Architecture student of the Universidade Lusíada of Vila Nova de Famalicão, died from wounds resulting of massive trauma to his spine which the coroner ruled as having been dealt by a blunt object during a praxe event. Judicial proceedings found that the university was guilty of not supervising such events on campus grounds and award the parents of the deceased student 90,000 euros. Two suspects were arraigned as defendants but in 2004 the case would be closed due to insufficient evidence to proceed any further. [31]

Hazing incidents are rare in the Republic of Ireland, but are known at certain elite educational institutions. Hazing took place at Dublin City University's Accounting & Finance Society in 2018, where first-years standing for committee positions had to complete a variety of sexualized games. The club was suspended for a year as a result.[32]

Hazing also occurs in sports societies. A report on Gaelic games county players noted that 6 percent of players reported were aware of forced binge drinking as a form of hazing.[33] Dublin University Boat Club are known for hazing, with rituals including consumption of alcohol, stripping to ones underwear, caning with bamboo rods, push-ups, being shouted at, standing in the rain, being tied together by shoelaces and crawling a maze while being hit with pillows.[34]

There have been reports that many young men are killed or commit suicide every year in Russia because of dedovshchina.[35] The New York Times reported that in 2006 at least 292 Russian soldiers were killed by dedovshchina (although the Russian military only admits that 16 soldiers were directly murdered by acts of dedovshchina and claims that the rest committed suicide), as well as several thousand reports of abuse: "On Aug. 4, it was announced by the chief military prosecutor that there had been 3,500 reports of abuse already this year (2006), compared with 2,798 in 2005".[36] The BBC meanwhile reported that in 2007, 341 soldiers committed suicide, a 15 percent reduction over the previous year.[37]

Overall, the Russian state has done little to curtail dedovshchina. In 2003, on the specific issues of denial of food and poor nutrition, Deputy Minister of Defence V. Isakov denied the existence of such problems.[38]

Asia

Ragging involves abuse, humiliation, or harassment of new entrants or junior students by the senior students. It often takes a malignant form wherein the newcomers may be subjected to psychological or physical torture.

Ragging has become increasingly unpopular in India due to complaints of serious injury to the victims.[39][40]

Following Supreme Court orders, a National Anti-Ragging Helpline was launched by the Indian government.[41] India's National Anti-Ragging Helpline started working in June 2009 to help students in distress due to ragging. It can be reached through email and a 24-hour toll-free number. Provision for anonymous complaints was considered of utmost important at the time of establishment of the helpline, since the victim after making the complaint remains with or close to the culprits, away from a fully secure environment.

The effectiveness of these measures are unknown; many accused of ragging freshmen are either let out with a warning or saved from legal action by political or caste lobbyists.

Legislation has been enacted in an attempt to enforce restrictions on ragging. For example, in 1999, the Government of Maharashtra enacted the Maharashtra Prohibition of Ragging Act, 1999 to prohibit ragging, based on the following definition:

“Ragging” means display of disorderly conduct, doing of any act which causes or is likely to cause physical or psychological harm or raise apprehension or fear or shame or embarrassment to a student in any educational institution and includes— (i) teasing, abusing, threatening or playing practical jokes on, or causing hurt to, such student ; or (ii) asking a student to do any act or perform something which such student will not, in the ordinary course, willingly, do.[42]

The objective of the act is to create a framework to establish ragging as a criminal act, and lay out possible punishments under the law. Section 4 of the Act states:

Whoever directly or indirectly commits, participates in, abets or propagates ragging within or outside any educational institution shall, on conviction, be punished with imprisonment for a term which may extend to two years and shall also be liable to a fine which may extend to ten thousand rupees.[42]

Students who have been convicted under this act may also be dismissed from their educational institution, and not be allowed to enroll in any other educational institution for five years. In addition, the act lays out a procedure by which education institutions should handle accusations of ragging, with suspension of the accused student(s) and investigation of the allegations, and holds those institutions accountable if they fail to act in the manner described. Under Section 7 of the Act, the head of the institution who fails or neglects to properly investigate such allegations "shall be deemed to have abetted the offense of ragging and shall, on conviction, be punished as provided for in section 4."[42] In other words, the school principal, chancellor, or other head faces the same punishment as a student who has been accused and convicted under this law.

It was applied in 2013, and resulted in the suspension of six students from Rajiv Gandhi Medical College in Mumbai.[43] The most notable case in which it has been applied is the suicide of Payal Tadvi, in which three senior medical students were charged under this act as well as under the Scheduled Caste and the Scheduled Tribe (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, and the Information Technology Act, 2000. [44] They were charged with ragging consisting of harassment, humiliation, and discrimination which directly led to her suicide.[45]

The University Grants Commission (UGC) has passed UGC regulation on curbing ragging in higher educational institutions, beginning in 2009 with updates in 2013 and 2016.[46] These regulation mandate every college responsibilities to curb ragging, including strict pre-emptive measures, like lodging freshers in a separate hostel, surprise raids at night by the anti-ragging squad, and submission of affidavits by all senior students and their parents taking oath not to indulge in ragging. In the 2016 amendment, the definition of ragging was updated to read:

Any act of physical or mental abuse (including bullying and exclusion) targeted at another student (fresher or otherwise) on the ground of colour, race, religion, caste, ethnicity, gender (including transgender), sexual orientation, appearance, nationality, regional origins, linguistic identity, place of birth, place of residence or economic background.[46]

Ragging in Sri Lanka has a certain psychological basis: Many senior students state they do not wish to rag juniors but succumb to peer pressure. On the other hand, although some new students or freshers enjoyed being ragged by their seniors, other students despised it. Following their ragging they did not even wish to talk to the senior students who subjected them to "inhumane mental and physical torture." It was found that although ragging was intended to be a "social equalizer," in reality it "deepened the gap between the social classes."[47]

Although ragging is a criminal offense in Sri Lanka under the Prohibition of Ragging and other Forms of Violence in Educational institutions Act, No. 20 of 1998 and carries a severe punishment,[48] several variations of ragging can be observed in universities around the country. Through the years this practice has worsened to all types of violence including sexual violence, harassment and has also claimed the lives of several students. The University Grants Commission of Sri Lanka, have set up several pathways to report ragging incidents, including a special office, helpline and a mobile app where students can make a complaint anonymously or seek help.[49]

Notes

  1. ↑ Harvey Whitehouse and Jonathan A. Lanman, The Ties That Bind Us Current Anthropology 55(6) (2014): 674–695. Retrieved June 15, 2022.
  2. ↑ Caroline F. Keating, Jason Pomerantz, et al., Going to college and unpacking hazing: A functional approach to decrypting initiation practices among undergraduates Group Dynamics: Theory, Research, and Practice 9(2) (2005): 104–126. Retrieved June 14, 2022.
  3. ↑ Robert Cialdini, Influence: Science and Practice (Allyn & Bacon, 2000, ISBN 978-0321011473).
  4. ↑ Elliot Aronson and Judson Mills, The effect of severity of initiation on liking for a group Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology 59(2) (1959): 177–181. Retrieved June 14, 2022.
  5. ↑ Leon Festinger, The psychological effects of insufficient rewards American Psychologist 16(1) (1961): 1–11. Retrieved June 14, 2022.
  6. ↑ Caroline Kamau, What does being initiated severely into a group do? The role of rewards International Journal of Psychology 48(3) (2013): 399-406. Retrieved June 14, 2022.
  7. ↑ John M. Levine and Richard L. Moreland, Group Socialization: Theory and Research European Review of Social Psychology 5(1) (1994): 305-336. Retrieved June 14, 2022.
  8. ↑ Judy L. Van Raalte, Allen E. Cornelius, Darwyn E. Linder, and Britton W. Brewer, The Relationship Between Hazing and Team Cohesion Journal of Sport Behavior, 30(4) (2007): 491–507. Retrieved June 23, 2022.
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 Barbara B. Hollmann, Hazing: Hidden campus crime New Directions for Student Services 2002(99) 2002:11-24. Retrieved June 23, 2022.
  10. ↑ Reinhold Aman (ed.), Maledicta 12 (Maledicta Press, 1996, ISBN 978-0916500320).
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 11.2 Chris Glavin, Hazing Methods K12 Academics. Retrieved June 16, 2022.
  12. ↑ Emily Esfahani Smith, On fraternities & manliness The New Criterion, May 2015. Retrieved June 25, 2022.
  13. ↑ Elizabeth J. Allan and Mary Madden, Hazing in View: College Students at Risk Initial Findings from the National Study of Student Hazing National Study of Student Hazing, March 11, 2008. Retrieved June 25, 2022.
  14. ↑ Lifeguards fired for hazing new squad members The Journal Times, July 18, 1997. Retrieved June 25, 2022.
  15. ↑ Eric S. Page, City Probes Alleged Nude Lifeguard Hazing Incident NBC San Diego, August 11, 2010. Retrieved June 25, 2022.
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 16.2 Henrique Tigo, Praxe Académica Portal RegiaoCentro.net. Retrieved June 25, 2022.
  17. ↑ Luke Harding, Russian army sold recruits for sex, rights group claims The Guardian, February 14, 2007. Retrieved June 28, 2022.
  18. ↑ Edward G. Whipple and Eileen G. Sullivan, Greek Letter Organizations: Communities of Learners? New Directions for Student Services 1998(81) (Spring 1998): 7-17. Retrieved June 29, 2022.
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 Michelle A. Finkel, Traumatic Injuries Caused By Hazing Practices American Journal of Emergency Medicine 20(3) (May 2002): 228–233. Retrieved June 29, 2022.
  20. ↑ Hank Nuwer, Wrongs of Passage: Fraternities, Sororities, Hazing, and Binge Drinking (Indiana University Press, 2002, ISBN 978-0253214980).
  21. ↑ Stephen Sweet, College and Society: An Introduction to the Sociological Imagination (Pearson, 2001, ISBN 978-0205305568).
  22. ↑ Hazing Policy and Prevention The University of Arizona. Retrieved June 29, 2022.
  23. ↑ Michael D. Shonrock, Standards and Expectations for Greek Letter Organizations New Directions for Student Services 1998(81) (Spring 1998):79–85. Retrieved June 29, 2022.
  24. ↑ Anti-Hazing Phi Beta Sigma Fraternity, Inc. Retrieved June 29, 2022.
  25. ↑ L. Martin Cobb and Michael McRee, Why We Should Close More Chapters Perspectives (Spring 2007): 4–8. Retrieved June 29, 2022.
  26. ↑ Hank Nuwer (ed.), The Hazing Reader (Indiana University Press, 2004, ISBN 0253216540).
  27. ↑ Cheryl E. Drout and Christie L. Corsoro, Attitudes toward fraternity hazing among fraternity members, sorority members, and non-Greek students Social Behavior and Personality: An international journal 31(6) (2003): 535-544. Retrieved June 25, 2022.
  28. ↑ Ronald Tipan, KU Leuven Student Died After Hazing Gets Out of Hand Veto, December 14, 2018. Retrieved June 29, 2022.
  29. ↑ 28 student clubs refuse to sign new hazing charter, "a real disgrace" says minister Flanders News, March 1, 2019. Retrieved June 29, 2022.
  30. ↑ Alexandra Serodio, Relação de Évora condena praxes violentas Jornal de Noticias. Retrieved June 29, 2022.
  31. ↑ Universidade paga indemnização por morte de aluno em praxe JN, September 27, 2009. Retrieved June 29, 2022.
  32. ↑ Organisers of 'hazing' event in DCU to attend respect and dignity training Irish Examiner, October 17, 2018. Retrieved June 28, 2022.
  33. ↑ Sean McCarthaigh, Top GAA stars at risk from binge drinking, study finds Irish Examiner, October 27, 2021. Retrieved June 25, 2022.
  34. ↑ Edmund Heaphy and Cormac Watson, Whipping, Secrecy and Coercion: Inside Boat Club’s Hazing Culture The University Times, January 29, 2019. Retrieved June 29, 2022.
  35. ↑ The Consequences of Dedovshchina, Human Rights Watch, October 2004. Retrieved June 29, 2022.
  36. ↑ Steven Lee Myers, Hazing Trial Bares a Dark Side of Russia's Military The New York Times, August 13, 2006. Retrieved June 29, 2022.
  37. ↑ Russia army suicides cause alarm BBC News, May 29, 2008. Retrieved June 29, 2022.
  38. ↑ To Serve without Health? Human Rights Watch, November 2003. Retrieved June 29, 2022.
  39. ↑ Ragging can demolish a student - both mentally and physically FirstPost, August 21, 2019. Retrieved June 30, 2022.
  40. ↑ Amit Sen, Mohan Rao, Shekhar Seshadri, and Shobna Sonpar, Understanding ragging: Ahead of the academic season, a look at the problem, its impact|The Indian Express, August 2, 2017. Retrieved June 30, 2022.
  41. ↑ Anti-Ragging Helpline University Grants Commission. Retrieved June 30, 2022.
  42. ↑ 42.0 42.1 42.2 The Maharashtra Prohibition of Ragging Act, 1999 Government Central Press, Mumbai, 2012. Retrieved June 30, 2022.
  43. ↑ Nishikant Karlikar, College suspends medical students for 'ragging' The Times of India, September 30, 2013. Retrieved June 30, 2022.
  44. ↑ Jyoti Shelar, What does State's anti-ragging Act say? The Hindu, May 31, 2019. Retrieved June 30, 2022.
  45. ↑ Sukanya Shantha, Payal Tadvi Case: Chargesheet Reveals Months of Humiliation, Discrimination The Wire, July 25, 2019. Retrieved June 30, 2022.
  46. ↑ 46.0 46.1 Curbing the menace of Ragging in Higher Educational Institutions (third amendment), Regulations, 2016. University Grants Commission, June 29, 2016. Retrieved June 30, 2022.
  47. ↑ P.H.A.N.S. Jayasena, Ragging in the University: A Problem in the Higher Education Institutions Proceedings of the Annual Research Sessions, University of Peradeniya 7 (October 30, 2004): 54. Retrieved June 30, 2022.
  48. ↑ Prohibition Of Ragging And Other Forms Of Violence In Educational Institutions Ministry of Justice - Sri Lanka. Retrieved June 30, 2022.
  49. ↑ Ragging in Sri Lankan Universities Student Sri Lanka, July 2, 2019. Retrieved June 30, 2022.

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

  • Aman, Reinhold (ed.). Maledicta 12. Maledicta Press, 1996. ISBN 978-0916500320
  • Cialdini, Robert. Influence: Science and Practice. Allyn & Bacon, 2000. ISBN 978-0321011473
  • Nuwer, Hank. Wrongs of Passage: Fraternities, Sororities, Hazing, and Binge Drinking. Indiana University Press, 2002. ISBN 978-0253214980
  • Nuwer, Hank (ed.). The Hazing Reader. Indiana University Press, 2004. ISBN 0253216540
  • Sweet, Stephen. College and Society: An Introduction to the Sociological Imagination. Pearson, 2001. ISBN 978-0205305568

External links

All links retrieved June 30, 2022.


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